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THE ATLANTIC MONTHLY PRESS 
BOSTON 



THE 
LITTLE GRAMMAR 



BY 

E A. CROSS 



DEAN OF COLORADO STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE 

AND 

PROFESSOR OF LITERATURE AND ENGLISH 



FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 




THE ATLANTIC MONTHLY PRESS 
BOSTON 



.0^ 



Copyright, 1922, by 
the Atlantic Monthly Press 



PRINTED IN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 



DEC -4 -22 

HU692222 

'Vv-tf / 



PREFACE 

The Little Grammar attempts to set forth all the facts 
about English Grammar that have a function in shaping 
the language of young people. No one now believes that 
"grammar books" make children's speech. That process is 
one of gradual growth, mostly through unconscious imita- 
tion. If all the language a child hears were faultless, there 
would be but little occasion for a textbook in grammar. 
Imitation, conscious and unconscious, would supply all the 
language that a child would ever need, whether he expected 
to be a day laborer or a novelist. Unfortunately we cannot 
eliminate grammar from school curricula, for no child hears 
expressive, elegant, faultless English all his days. Every 
child, every adult, finds it necessary occasionally to look 
forward as he speaks or writes, and to construct consciously 
the sentences that are to express his thought. Not only is 
this conscious prevision necessary, but a conscious revision 
is just as imperative — a revision to make what is said 
or written conform to the laws of good usage. 

To say that is to say nothing new. The new thing is to 
try to make a grammar that will set forth only those laws 
of good usage that are really necessary as a guide to one 
who is looking forward as he expresses himself, or backward 
as he passes judgment upon what he has said. Such a book 
would be a functional grammar, for it would set forth the 
minimum essentials of grammar, — only those grammar 
facts that have a function, — omitting all those that are 
merely interesting to a mature student of language. This 
book makes that attempt. 



iv PREFACE 

The author is conscious of breaking away from two well- 
established traditions. First, the series of language books 
usually provided for children contains all the materials for 
language, composition, and, to a certain extent, literary 
studies. This involves the use of two or three volumes. 
Second, the books are large — three or four hundred pages 
to the volume. 

The functional method assumes that spoken and written 
language in the grades, from the first to the sixth, should 
be taught in connection with every lesson of the day — with 
the arithmetic, the geography, the history, but more espe- 
cially with the lessons in reading, story-telling, and litera- 
ture. Some schools will want to continue with the special 
period for spoken and written English. There is no objec- 
tion to that plan beyond the fact that it formalizes and makes 
conscious a thing that should be informal and unconscious. 

This book is made upon the assumption that the conscious 
or unconscious language lessons in the earlier grades will 
have brought to the pupils all the facts that are presented 
here. It then tries to organize, in as brief a series of lessons 
as possible, every fact that has any function in determining 
what good usage is. It has been planned to be used for a 
half-year in the seventh grade. In the eighth grade, the 
whole matter should be gone over again, for the purpose of 
fixing the earlier impressions. This should be done in ten 
or twelve weeks. The book may, of course, be used in other 
grades, for reference and review. 

In the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, the lessons in 
literature should be given in the form of complete pieces 
of classic and contemporary literary productions, such as 
will interest children of adolescent years. The lessons in 
composition should be the daily oral and written recitations 
in geography, arithmetic, history, physiology, literature and 



PREFACE v 

reading, and the other school-subjects. Such lessons will 
have a motive, and will, therefore, be more than exercises 
in oral and written composition. 

It is assumed that the pupil who studies this book has 
already met in his previous inductive lessons every fact 
that the book contains. This volume merely sets forth the 
previously studied facts briefly and in an orderly way. It is 
a book whose purpose is to organize what the pupil knows 
about the English language, to review those known facts 
and to drill upon them, and to serve as a reference-book in 
grammar, just as a dictionary serves in its field. In brief, 
the ambition of the author is to present to young people, 
in a very small volume, a series of lessons including all the 
essential facts about English which young people need to 
know. By viewing his task constantly from their stand- 
point, the author hopes that he has succeeded in taking away 
the drudgery of grammar study from the school lives of those 
girls and boys. 

E. A. C. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Introduction: The English Language 
Part I. The Elements of a Sentence 

LESSON PAGE 

i. Grammar the Science of the Sentence 3 

2. The Sentence 8 

3. The Sentence {continued) 11 

4. The Sentence {continued) 12 

5. A Review 12 

6. Independent Elements in Sentences 14 

7. The Complements of the Verb 17 

8. Word Modifiers 20 

9. Phrase Modifiers 22 

10. Clause Modifiers . 23 

11. Phrases in Apposition, and as Subjects and Predicate Comple- 

ments 27 

12. Clauses in Apposition, and as Subjects and Predicate Comple- 

ments, and as Objects 28 

13. Elliptical Sentences 30 

14. Compound Sentences 31 

15. A Summary and a Review 34 

Part II. The Parts of Speech and their Inflec- 
tions and Functions 
lesson 

1. Recognizing the Parts of Speech 39 

2. Recognizing Nouns 42 

3. Plural Forms of Nouns 43 

4. Possessive Forms of Nouns 46 

5. Gender Forms of Nouns 48 

6. Pronouns: Personal Pronouns 50 

7. The Gender of Nouns and Pronouns 52 

vii 



viii TABLE OF CONTENTS 

LESSON PAGE 

8. The Case Forms of Personal Pronouns 53 

9. Practice in the Use of Personal Pronouns 57 

10. Interrogative Pronouns 59 

11. Relative Pronouns 61 

12. The Use of Relative Pronouns 62 

13. Relative Clauses, Restrictive and Nonrestrictive (Descriptive) 64 

14. Practice in the Use of Who and Whom 65 

15. Demonstrative Pronouns and Demonstrative Adjectives . . .66 

16. Indefinite Pronouns 67 

17. Adjectives 68 

18. Adverbs 72 

19. Punctuation 73 

20. Verbs 75 

21. Conjugation of Verbs 77 

22. The Tense of Verbs 82 

23. Verbals: The Participle 85 

24. Verbals: The Infinitive with To 89 

25. Verbals: The Gerund 91 

26. Shall and Will, Should and Would 93 

27. Prepositions ' 97 

28. Coordinate Conjunctions 98 

29. Subordinate Conjunctions 100 

30. Interjections 103 

Part III. Sentence Analysis 
lesson 

1. Simple Sentences with Word Modifiers 105 

2. Simple Sentences with Phrase Modifiers 108 

3. Complex Sentences no 

4. Sentences with Participial Phrases 112 

5. Compound Sentences, etc 114 

6. Miscellaneous Sentences for Analysis 118 

7. Miscellaneous Sentences for Analysis 119 

Part IV. Materials for Reference 

Punctuation 121 

Common Errors in English 1 24 

Slang 130 



TABLE OF CONTENTS ix 

Appendix. Additional Lessons for the Abler and 
more Advanced Pupils 

LESSON PAGE 

A. Predicate Complements 131 

B. Predicate Complements 134 

C. Substantive Uses of Phrases 136 

D. Expletives It and There 137 

E. Noun Uses of Phrases and Clauses 138 

F. Elliptical Sentences 140 

G. The Uses of the Infinitive with To 141 

H. The Uses of the -ing Words . 143 



INTRODUCTION 

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

To the Teacher. — Make a reading-lesson of the chapter on the 
English Language. Do not ask the pupils to memorize the facts, 
but talk this narrative over with them as they read. 

The English language is spoken in the United States and 
in all countries of the British Empire, including the widely 
separated countries of Australia, New Zealand, and Canada, 
as well as England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. The 
language is so well known, and the peoples who use it are 
so widely distributed over the civilized world, that one who 
speaks only the English language may go almost anywhere 
in the world and make himself understood. English-speaking 
traders and travelers go everywhere, and hence it has be- 
come advantageous to the people of remote places to be 
able to speak this much-used tongue. 

No one language has yet become universal; but English 
is used by more persons and in more places than German, 
French, or Spanish, the three other widely used languages. 
One who speaks English with ease and accuracy and sim- 
plicity is very fortunate, for he can express his thoughts in 
words that will be understood almost anywhere. But if he 
has any interest in being exactly understood, and in pre- 
serving English as a world-speech, he must learn to speak 
the words of the language distinctly, to pronounce them as 
educated men and women everywhere pronounce them, and 
to combine them in sentences according to the laws and 
customs which educated English speakers everywhere em- 



xii THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

ploy. This last requirement is what we have in mind when 
we speak of the grammar of the English language. 

Greek and Latin we call dead languages. English, French, 
and German we speak of as living languages. The first 
two are called "dead" because, in their ancient or classic 
forms, they are no longer spoken, and being no longer spoken, 
they do not grow. The living languages get new words as 
new needs arise. A machine is invented, by the use of which 
a man can fly through the air at a hundred miles an hour. 
We name it an aeroplane, or airplane. The Latins had no 
such machine, and so could have no such word. And as 
the language is no longer spoken, no word with that meaning 
will be added to that language. 

New nouns are not the only words added to a living 
language, but new verbs, new adjectives, and new adverbs 
come into use as need for them arises. Spellings change, 
pronunciations change slightly, and the meanings change 
as well. These changes are slow, however. Very little 
change is made in ten or twenty years — not enough to be 
noticed; but a comparison of the language as it is now spoken 
with what was used four or five hundred years ago will 
show great changes. 

A HISTORY OF OUR LANGUAGE 

The English language did not originate in England. All 
the languages of Europe, and of the countries in the New 
World which have been peopled by Europeans, are some- 
what alike, as if they had come from one common source. 
Some words sound somewhat alike in several languages. 
Father in English, is pater in Latin, padre in Spanish, vater 
in German, and Trarrjp (pronounced patar) in ancient Greek. 
The people who brought to England the original dialects 
which afterward became English, came from the lowlands 



THE LITTLE GRAMMAR xiii 

lying along the North Sea and the Baltic Sea — lands now 
occupied by Denmark and the German state of Schleswig- 
Holstein. The tribes were called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. 
They came as invaders into southeastern England about 
the year a.d. 449, and pushed the native Britons back toward 
Wales and Cornwall. The new Germanic dialects blended, 
and became the language of the more civilized part of Britain. 
The country itself was soon called Angle Land, and the 
language that was made by the blending of the dialects of 
the Angles, Saxons, and, to a smaller extent, the Jutes, was 
later called Anglo-Saxon. 

This new language gradually supplanted the old British, 
but did not entirely destroy it. British still survives, in a 
modified form, in Welsh, and in some other dialects. The 
new language grew and changed from century to century, 
until it became the English of the present day. In its old 
form, used from a.d. 500 to 900, it was as much like modern 
German as it was like modern English. But the German 
language has developed in its way, and the English in its, 
so that they now show little resemblance, except to the 
student of languages. 

To illustrate the steps in the growth of the language, 
several examples of English at different periods, about two 
hundred years apart, are shown here. The first is the Lord's 
Prayer in Anglo-Saxon of about the year 900. 

Faeder ure, ]du J>e eart on heofenum 
Father our thou that art in heavens 

Si J)in nama gehalgod 
Be thy name hallowed 

To becume J)in rice 
Arrive thy kingdom 



xiv THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

GewcoJ)e \>m willa on eorjmn, swa swa on heofenum 
Be-donc thy will on earth just as in heavens 

Urne daeghwamlican hlaf syle us to daeg 
Our daily loaf give us to-day 

And forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we forgifaj) urum gyltendum 
And forgive us our debts, just as we forgive our debtors 

And ne gelaide J)ii us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfle 
And not lead thou us into temptation, but loose us from evil 

SoJ)lice. 
Truly. 

The second illustration is from the "Anglo-Saxon Chroni- 
cle" for the year 1137. It is the closing sentence of a 
long narrative of unjust acts of the year. 

I ne can ne I ne mai tellen al]e the wunder ne alle the 
/ not can nor I not may tell all the wonders nor all the 

pines that hi diden wrecce men on this land; and that 
tortures that they did to wretched men in this land; and that 

lastede tha .xix. wintre wile Stephne was king, 

lasted the nineteen winters {years) while Stephen was king, 

and aevre it was uuerse and uuerse. 
and ever it was worse and worse. 

In the year 1066, Duke William of Normandy, called 
William the Conqueror, defeated the Saxon King, Harold 
of England, at Hastings, and became himself King of 
England. The French language, as it was spoken in Nor- 
mandy (northwestern France), became the official language, 
and for a long time the literary language, of England. 
Anglo-Saxon was still spoken by the common people, but 



THE LITTLE GRAMMAR xv 

it changed rapidly. Being written but little, its forms were 
not very permanent. You can see that by 113 7 it had 
become quite like modern English. 

The next selection shows still greater changes. It is the 
opening couplet of a long narrative poem written about 
1350, by William Langland, and called "The Vision of 
Piers the Plowman." The language is strange in spelling, 
but most of the words sound ke modern English, and the 
lines are fairly easy to read without a special study of 
the language of that period. 

In a somer sesun, whon softe was the sonne 
In a summer season when soft was the sun(shine) 

I schop me into a shroud, as I a scheep were. 
/ got me into a garment, as I a sheep were. 

Anglo-Saxon is the foundation of modern English, es- 
pecially of its grammar; but the language has been enriched 
from many sources. Some old British words, such as dun, 
meaning dune, down, or hill, were kept. Many Latin words 
were brought in by priests and scholars. French words 
were borrowed from the Norman-French. Some Danish 
words came with the invasions of the Norsemen in the 
eighth century. In later years, and in our own time, travel 
and trade have brought into the English language many 
words from many languages from all parts of the world. 

The language is living, and, like every living thing, it is 
constantly growing. It adds new words and drops useless 
old ones. It even changes its grammar slightly. The sub- 
junctive mode has almost gone out of use in a hundred 
years. We still say, "If I were," "If he were," etc., but 
only a few speakers still use, "If he be," "If she read," etc. 
In oral speech the form whom seems to be passing out of 
use at the beginning of a sentence. We always write, " Whom 



xvi THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

were you expecting to meet?" but in colloquial speech there 
is a tendency to say, " Who did you expect to meet? " When 
the word occurs with a preposition at the beginning of a 
sentence, we always speak, or write, whom: "For whom were 
you looking?" 

The English language is a rich inheritance. It is like a 
beautifully made musical instrument, handed down from 
generation to generation, and prized by the family which 
comes into possession of it. It should not be marred by 
careless usage. If you owned a harp upon which the Saxon 
bards had once played the accompaniment to " Beowulf," you 
would hardly desecrate it with ragtime. No more should 
you desecrate the language, the instrument of expression, 
which served Chaucer and Shakespeare and Tennyson, and 
all the poets and thinkers who have used the good English 
tongue, by expressing empty-minded nothings in ill-chosen, 
badly enunciated, and badly pronounced words, thrown 
together into slovenly sentences. You have inherited the 
English language. It is a simple and beautiful speech, 
capable of expressing every human thought, the simplest 
or the most profound or the most eloquent. Use it as if 
you valued the instrument, and thought it a privilege to 
keep it for yourself and to teach others its beauties, and its 
usefulness as a means of conveying thought from mind to 
mind. 



THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 



THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

PART I 
THE ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE 

Teaching Direction. — This book has been prepared for classes 
that have already had language-study through the fourth, fifth, and 
sixth grades. It is taken for granted that the pupils who study these 
lessons are already familiar with the names of the parts of speech, 
and that they are able to recognize them when they see them. If a 
class has not had such language-study, the teacher may find it ex- 
pedient to begin with Part II, and then return to Part I. The 
author believes that, for most classes, the order of the book is the 
logical one for the kind of study of language the seventh- grade pupil 
is likely to need. 

LESSON 1 

GRAMMAR THE SCIENCE OF THE SENTENCE 

We have customary ways of saying things in speaking 
our language, and in most cases there is a logical reason for 
each of the customs. Now, the science which observes the 
customs followed in making our English sentences, and which 
arranges these observations in an orderly way, so that we 
may refer to them when in doubt about how to speak or 
write a sentence, is English Grammar. 

Authority and Usage 
No person, no textbook of grammar, no maker of a dic- 
tionary is the authority for good usage, for correct English. 

3 



4 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

Whatever is the customary usage in writing and speaking 
among cultured and educated English-speaking people is 
correct English. Usage is the authority — usage, that is, 
of the best writers and speakers. Textbooks do not make 
the customs: they merely report what the customary 
usage is. 

English Grammar not Difficult 
English Grammar is the science of the English Sentence. 
What the seventh- or eighth-grade pupil needs to know 
about the English sentence is neither very complex nor very 
difficult. When you know all about how sentences are made, 
you know all about English Grammar. There are many 
irregularities, many variations, and many inconsistencies in 
our language, which the literary man or woman must know; 
but the task of the junior high-school pupil is not a very 
large or very difficult one. 

The Levels of Language 
Very few people "talk just like a book." Of course, the 
language of the few people who do "talk like a book" is 
correct; but it is too formal, too stiff, for easy oral exchange 
of thought. It does not sound quite natural. It seems 
artificial. A writer uses certain sentence arrangements and 
certain formal words that are not common in free-and-easy 
speaking. These forms are just what are wanted in literary 
composition, but not in oral communication. Some other 
forms of speech are not correct, even in the most informal 
talk. All these grades of speech constitute what we shall 
call here the "Levels of Language." There are five of these 
grades, or levels. The first is correct for formal writing, the 
second correct for oral use, and the other three not per- 
missible in either formal writing or elegant speech. The 
five levels are* 



GRAMMAR, SCIENCE OF THE SENTENCE 5 

1. Literary English. — This is the language which is used 
in formal writing, such as magazine articles, novels, 
essays, stories, formal public addresses, and very formal 
letters. 

2. Colloquial English. — This is the language used in 
conversation, in informal letters, and in any writing that 
imitates speech. Although not of so high a standard as the 
literary language, it is correct in its place. Colloquial 
English differs from the literary mostly in sentence arrange- 
ment, in the use of contractions, such as does n't, won't, is n't, 
and in the frequent use of elliptical sentences. The diction 
(choice of words) also is less formal than that used in literary 
English. 

3. Provincial English. — Provincial English makes use of 
words, phrases, and sentence arrangements which are not 
used by the cultured English-speaking world, but only in 
some smaller section of the country. 

"Tie your broncho up in the corral." 

"Do that like we do." 

"I admire to have met you." 

"I guess he is the best man for the place." 

"I reckon she '11 be home before dusk." 

4. Slang is picturesque, new English, invented to say a 
thing quickly and strikingly. Its usual course is to spring 
up quickly, to flourish for a few months, or for a year or two, 
and then to disappear. But sometimes a slang word or 
phrase is so expressive and so useful that it becomes, first, 
colloquial, and then literary, English. Slang is not bad if 
used only occasionally, to give color to one's speech. The 
great danger lies in acquiring the slang habit. One who has 
the habit finds it impossible to think of good words when 
he needs to speak correctly and carefully. 



6 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

5. Vulgar English is that which is spoken by the unedu- 
cated, uncultured mass. It is worse than slang. It is never 
admissible, for its use marks the speaker as a person unedu- 
cated, uncultured, and without taste. 

Such words as ain't, hain't, airy and nairy, hisn, hem, 
chaw, and Haters are all vulgar. Phrases like ain't got no 
and hadn't orter belong to this class. 

Written Work 
Make lists of such incorrect expressions as you hear 
commonly or are already acquainted with, under the three 
headings: 

I. Provincialisms 
II. Slang 
III. Vulgarisms 

Note that both slang and vulgarisms may be provincial; that 
is, they may be used in certain parts of the country, but not in 
others. It is interesting to determine from what section of the 
country the people have come who use these expressions. With- 
out offending those who use them, find out as much as you can 
about the origin of the words or phrases. For example, if you 
hear someone say different than, instead of different from, inquire 
where he or his parents came from. Or, if a playmate speaks 
of packing an armful of wood, try to find out what part of the 
country uses pack for carry. 

Make your three lists like the model below. Try to find 
twenty or more examples of each kind of error. 

I. Provincialisms. 

1. (a) Quote the sentence: "LIow did your garden pan 
out this year?" 
(b) Correct the sentence, using any correct form, such 
as, "What success did you have with your garden 
this year?" 



GRAMMAR, SCIENCE OF THE SENTENCE 7 

(c) Note, if possible, the origin of the provincialism. 
Pan out is used in gold-mining in the West, where 
a gold pan is used to separate the particles of 
gold from the sand. 
2. Can't you-all come to play with us Tuesday? 

Can't you (or all of you children) come to play with 

us Tuesday? . 
A Southern provincialism. 

3- 

4. and so following, to twenty or more. 

II. Slang. 

1. (a) Winston cracked his bean in the gym to-day. 

(b) Winston bumped his head in the gymnasium to-day. 

(c) Origin of the use of bean for head not known. 

Note. — Since Slang and Vulgarisms are usually of unknown origin, 
and are not commonly confined to any one part of the country, the 
third point may be omitted. 
2. 

3- 

' 4. and so following, to twenty or more. 

Teaching Direction. — There is work here for three days, for a 
class of average ability. If you wish to use three days for this kind 
of work, make a separate lesson for each level of speech. After 
all the pupils have reported their lists, make up a final, comprehensive 
list on the blackboard, by combining the examples of all the pupils 
in one list, using each incorrect form only once in the final list. 
Have this list neatly copied and bound, for later reference for your- 
self and the class. 



8 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

LESSON 2 
THE SENTENCE 

A Sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought. 

Yellow roses covered the wall. 
They have gone to the camp. 
Mountains are very imposing. 

You will see below some groups of words which express a 
complete thought, and others which merely make you think 
of something without actually expressing the thought. 
Divide these into two groups, the first group being sen- 
tences (expressing a complete thought), and the second 
group being non-sentences (merely calling up a mental 
picture). 

i. The car was driven rapidly. 

2. The rapidly driven car. 

3. In early spring. 

4. These are my kodak pictures. 

5. Pictures of our mountain camp. 

6. We make our garden early in the spring. 

7. Snowballing in winter. 

8. Apples are gathered in October. 

9. Red brick chimneys upon the houses. 

10. These trees are olive. 

11. The background is too dark. 

12. The lighter colors. 

Now add something to each of the non-sentences which 
will make it a sentence. Rearrange it, if necessary. 

Examples: 

The rapidly driven car. 
The car was driven rapidly. 

Now make four non-sentences, and then change them to 
sentences by adding to and rearranging them. 



THE SENTENCE 



Two necessary parts to any sentence 





Subject part 


Predicate part 


I. 


Paper 


burns. 


2. 


Pineapples 


do not grow on pine trees, 


3- 


The seeds of pine trees 


are found in the cones. 


4- 


Butterflies 


come from cocoons. 


5- 


His military medal 


was won in France. 


6. 


This brave man 


was wounded there. 


7- 


Who 


invented that machine? 



Predicate Part. — One part of the sentence makes the 
statement. This is called the predicate. 

Subject Part. — The other part is the naming part. It 
names the thing {the subject) concerning which the state- 
ment is made. 

Sentence Order. — English sentences usually have the 
subject first and the predicate following. All the sentences 
above are so arranged. But questions frequently reverse 
the order of the parts. 

Examples: 

Predicate 
Is your favorite color 
From what country came 



Subject 
lavender? 
this strange man? 



Or the words that make up the two parts are mingled. 
Examples: 



Predicate 


Subject 


Predicate 


Are 


these 


what you want? 


Did 


Fulton 


build the first steamboat? 


Why are 


you 


going? 



To make sure what words belong to the subject part, you 
may rearrange the question so as to make a statement, or 
in that order. 



io THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

Subject Predicate 

i. Lavender is your favorite color. 

2. This strange man came from what country? 

3. These are what you want. 

4. Fulton did build the first steamboat. 

5. You are going why? 

Commands and Requests. — Frequently the subject is 
omitted in sentences which give a command or make a 
request. The word you, whether included or omitted, is 
nearly always the subject of such sentences. 

Examples: 

Subject Predicate 

Forgive my thoughtlessness. 

You get out at once. 
Grant our petition. 

Note. — If you is actually written or spoken in such a sentence, it 
makes the subject much more emphatic than it would be otherwise. 

Vocatives. — In these sentences we sometimes use the 
name of the one of whom the request is made, or the one 
who is commanded. 

Examples: 

Martha, (you) come in for a moment. 
(You) Ride, ride, Messala! 

These calling words are called Vocatives. (Voco is the 
Latin word meaning call.) 

The vocative is independent of the subject and predicate 
parts. 

Punctuation. — 1. A sentence which states a fact (a 
Declarative Sentence) is followed by a period (.). 

2. A sentence which asks a question (an Interrogative 
Sentence) is followed by a question mark (?). 



THE SENTENCE n 

3. A sentence which commands or requests (an Impera- 
tive Sentence) is followed by a period (.). 

4. Any one of the three kinds of sentences already named 
may be expressed with strong emotion or vehemently. These 
then become exclamations, and are followed by the exclama- 
tion point (!). 



Examples: 



1. How quickly the time goes! 

2. What is this I hear! 

3. Forward march! 

4. Ride, ride, Messala! 



LESSON 3 
TEACHING DIRECTION 



Oral. — Have the pupils make up a number of sentences such 
as they will use during the day's recitations in any subject, — 
history, geography, physiology, arithmetic, — and in all the sentence- 
forms. Require them to divide each sentence into subject and predi- 
cate parts. Have this done until you feel sure that each pupil 
can do it without hesitation or error. Your class may show the 
ability to do this in a single recitation. Individual pupils may 
need further instruction. If the class does not acquire this knowl- 
edge and skill in a single lesson, use all the time necessary, even if 
it runs on to a week or more. This is a matter of first importance 
to each pupil. Work at it till you know that every pupil can quickly 
and unerringly distinguish between a sentence and a non-sentence, 
and can divide sentences into subject parts and predicate parts-. 



12 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

LESSON 4 
TEACHING DIRECTION 

Written. — Require each pupil to write a group of sentences, a 
dozen or more, such as they use in their daily lessons. The sentences 
must be correctly punctuated x as they are written. Then have 
each sentence divided into subject and predicate parts. Continue 
this, as in Lesson 3, until each pupil can, without hesitation, do all 
three of the things required. 

1. Sentence construction 

2. End punctuation 

3. Division into the two essential parts 

Use as many days as are necessary for this. 



LESSON 5 
A REVIEW 

First, punctuate each sentence as it stands. 

Second, divide each into subject and predicate parts. Set 
out the vocatives as independent elements. 

Third, point out the sentences that require exclamation 
points as they stand. 

Fourth, determine what other sentences in the group could 
be stated so vehemently or emotionally that an exclamation 
point would be appropriate. 

1 This book teaches all the essentials of punctuation, introducing 
each principle as it is needed. It is, therefore, necessary to take up 
each need as it arises, and practise it until that particular use of a 
punctuation mark becomes an unconscious habit. The working-principles 
of punctuation are reasonable and simple. Teach them so thoroughly 
that no pupil of yours will ever after think of punctuation as a mystery 
understood only by the literary man or woman. 



THE SENTENCE 13 

i. Brushing the teeth prevents their decay 

2. What are some of the agricultural products of Switzerland 

3. How brilliant the sunset is 

4. These rocks are of volcanic formation 

5. Twenty is four per cent of five hundred 

6. When the cool nights come, grapes begin to ripen 

7. Bake your cookies in a hot oven 

8. Is there a good reason for thinking so 

9. Why delay longer 

10. Grant us a half-holiday to-morrow Mr. Blake 

11. Melons grow best in a sandy soil 

12. Stitch the cuffs to the sleeve next 

13. Make a paste of the cocoa and sugar with boiling water before 

stirring these into the milk 

14. Do you refuse to follow directions 

15. What means of transportation Harry would you expect to 

find in Persia 

16. Print paper is mostly made from wood pulp 

17. Adjectives give color and variety to sentences 

18. Who is so base as to be a bondman 

19. Give me liberty or give me death 

20. The winters are too bleak for fruit-raising 

21. The old Liberty bell is now badly cracked 

22. Ring out wild bells to the wild sky 

23. We find our interest problems easy now 

24. Pronounce your -ing words more distinctly 

Note. — The only function that the terms Declarative, Interroga- 
tive, Imperative, and Exclamatory have, is to connect a name with a 
certain form of punctuation mark. Some authorities advise the intelli- 
gent teaching of the punctuation without employing those sentence- 



14 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

LESSON 6 

INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS IN SENTENCES 

Most of the sentences we have had in previous lessons 
contain just two parts, subject and predicate. A few of 
them have contained vocatives in addition to the subject 
part and predicate part. The sentences which follow have, 
in addition to the two main parts, a word, or group of 
words, which is not a part of either subject or predicate. 
These sentences are complete without the independent 
element — the word, or words, printed in italics. 

i. Vocatives (sometimes called the Nominative of 
Address) : 

Language, sir, is the dress of thought. 
Language is the dress of thought, Charles. 

2. Parenthetical Expressions : 

"Language," says Dr. Johnson, "is the dress of thought." 
Language is, / repeat, the dress of thought. 

3. Appositives: 

Language, the spoken word, is the dress of thought. 

4. Responsives yes and no: 

Yes, language is the dress of thought. 
No, language is not the dress of thought. 

5. Expletives it and there: 

It is satisfying to know that. 
Subj. Pred. 

(To know that ... is satisfying.) 
There are forty pupils in the class. 

Subj. Pred. 

(Forty pupils ... are in the class.) 

6. Interjections, Exclamations, Preparatory Words, and 
Exclamatory Nominatives : 



INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS IN SENTENCES 15 

Look! See the snow-capped peaks! 

What a foolish notion! It could not be done in that way. 

// You can't say that I did that. 

Well, I admit that language is the dress of thought. 

7. Absolute Constructions (sometimes called the Nomi- 
native Absolute) : 

The day being warm, we went without wraps. 

8. Pleonasm : 

Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me. 

INCORRECT USES OF INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 
Preparatory Words. — The habit of using well ('ull), and 
why (w'y,) as introductory words is a bad one. It makes the 
sentence that follows seem vague and hesitant. Speech filled 
with these words lacks positiveness. The occasional use of 
a preparatory word to give variety to the sentences, or to 
avoid a dogmatic statement, is not objectionable. 

Absolute Constructions. — The absolute construction is 
perfectly correct. While not connected with the sentence, 
it usually gives a reason or indicates time. But since the 
phrase is built about a word ending in -ing, it is apt to 
degenerate into the phrase common^ called " the dangling 
participial modifier." Here are examples of both uses. 

Absolute (correct): 

Our lunch being eaten, we drove on up the hill toward our 
camp. 

Dangling Participle (incorrect): 

Having eaten our lunch, the old horse plodded on toward 
the camp. 

In the second example, the dangling participle, the 
phrase does not give a reason or indicate time. It seems to 
say that the horse ate the lunch and then plodded on. 



1 6 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

Pleonasm. — Pleonasm is a literary device used to give 
poetic beauty to a sentence by repeating the subject first 
as a noun and then as a pronoun. Thy rod (noun) and thy 
staff (noun), they (pronoun) comfort me. But when children 
say: " Frank, he hit me with a snowball," or "Mrs. Scott, 
she sent for Alice to come home," the construction is crude. 

List separately the Independent Elements in each of the 
following sentences, and then rearrange the sentence and 
divide it into subject part and predicate part, thus: 
Language, sir, is the dress of thought. 

Independent element Subject part Predicate part 

sir language is the dress of thought 

i. The time having come, we started on our journey. 

2. Why, that does n't seem reasonable. 

3. He worked at his trade, gardening, for many years. 

4. This report, I am sure, is exaggerated. 

5. No, that is impossible. 

6. It is necessary to learn all the tables. 

7. Oh, what fun we have had. 

8. Pictures being our greatest delight, we all went together to 

the art gallery. 

9. Oh, Mary, go and call the cattle home. 
10. You! it could not have been you. 

ii. The fruit being unripe, we left it on the trees. 

12. There were seven pages to be memorized. 

13. Their father tried, moreover, to assist them. 

14. Your former friend, Ruth Miller, has moved away. 

15. Yes, our guests have arrived. 

16. Well, these may be good enough. 

Correct these sentences. 

1. Why, the teacher she asked me six questions. 

2. While crocheting a piece of lace, the big circus elephant passed 

our house. 

3. Having finished their work, Miss Alberts dismissed her pupils. 

4. Mr. Burke he repairs motorcycles. 



THE COMPLEMENTS OF THE VERB 17 

5. While drinking a large glass of lemonade, an ant crawled under 
Harvey's collar. 

Punctuation. — All the Independent Elements, except the 
expletives, it and there, and the exclamations, are set out from 
the body of the sentence by commas. It and there are not 
set off at all. An exclamation, unless it happens to be a 
very mild one, is set off by an exclamation point. A comma 
is used to set out a mild exclamation. 

Teaching Directions. — The important thing for the pupil is 
not to learn the names of these constructions, but to recognize them 
as regular devices in speech and writing, and to know the function 
of each. For example, the expletives it and there are used as devices 
to reverse the order of the subject and predicate, for the sake of variety, 
or to shift the point of emphasis in the sentence. 

Have your pupils constantly correct themselves and each other in 
the use of crude pleonasm, the dangling participle, and the vague 
use of well and why. 



LESSON 7 

THE COMPLEMENTS OF THE VERB 

Some predicates are single verbs; others are verb phrases; 
and still others are made up of a verb and an adjective, a 
verb and a noun, or a verb and a pronoun. The noun, 
pronoun, or adjective that completes the predicate is called 
the complement of the predicate. 





Subject 


Predicate Corn- 
verb plemeni 


Predicate a single verb 


1. Birds 


sing 




2. Frogs 


jump 


Predicate a verb phrase 


3. Those 


have been sold 




4. George 


could have suc- 
ceeded 



1 8 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 



Subject Predicate Corn- 
verb 



Predicate a verb and a noun 


5. Camels 


are 


animals 




6. Athletes 


carry- 


weights 


Predicate a verb and a pronoun 


7. It 


is 


she 




8. Mother 


called 


her 


Predicate a verb and an adjective 


9. Apples 


are 


ripe 




10. She 


is 


happy 



In the fifth and seventh sentences you will notice that 
the noun or pronoun in the predicate refers to the same 
thing as the subject noun or pronoun. These noun and 
pronoun complements of the predicate are called predicate 
nouns and predicate pronouns. 

Adjective complements like those in the ninth and tenth 
sentences are called predicate adjectives. 

The noun and pronoun complements in the sixth and eighth 
sentences are names of things different from the subject. 
These are called direct objects of the predicate verb. 

SIMPLE SUBJECT, PREDICATE VERB, AND 
PREDICATE COMPLEMENT 

Dreamily glimmer the sails of ships on the distant horizon. 

Subject Predicate 

The sails of ships . . . glimmer dreamily on the distant horizon. 

From the complete subject in any sentence one can usually 
select a single word as a simple subject, and from the com- 
plete predicate a single verb for predicate. The two together 
will make a statement of a complete thought. 

Simple subject Predicate verb 

Sails glimmer 

Usually a single word may be taken from a sentence as 
simple subject; but the predicate verb is more frequently a 



THE COMPLEMENTS OF THE VERB 19 

group of words in the form of a verb phrase. The predi- 
cate complement is usually a single word. After this les- 
son, when the word subject or predicate is used, it will mean 
the simple subject or the predicate verb alone. When the 
whole subject or whole predicate is wanted, we shall use 
the terms complete subject and complete predicate. 

From the following sentences select the simple subject, 
the predicate verb, and the predicate complement. 

(a) An empty vessel makes the greatest sound. 
{b) Every man is the architect of his own fortune. 

Simple subject Predicate verb Predicate complement 
vessel makes sound {direct object) 

man is architect (predicate noun) 

1. A beggar through the world am I. 

2. Temperance and labor are the two best physicians of man. 

3. Man became a living soul. 

4. Sunshine steals light from her face. 

5. A false balance is an abomination to the Lord. 

6. But a just weight is his delight. 

7. Nature hath framed strange fellows in her time. 

8. The better part of valor is discretion. 

9. The gift without the giver is bare. 

10. Far through the memory shines a happy day. 

The second sentence above and the three which follow 
here have two or more words for their subjects, predicate 
verbs, or predicate complements. We call these contj 
subjects, compound predicates, compound complements. 

11. He thought and worked for the good of his country. 

12. Have you heard Scotti and Farrar? 

13. The summer cottages are theirs and ours. 

14. Jason felt that he could never forgive himself. 

15. The young man knelt down and prayed. 

16. The river is very rough. 



20 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

17. The passage did not seem safe. 

18. Beside him stood an old woman. 

19. Upon first one person and then another Jason stared. 

20. What will the king say? 

21. The king turned angrily and fixed his eyes upon Jason. 

22. Beowulf came upon the head of the lost warrior. 

23. Horror filled the minds of his men. 

24. Here a mountain stream dashes out of sight and flows under- 

ground. 

25. I will reward thee with money and ancient treasure. 

26. Quickly he mounted his steed and went forth with Beowulf. 

27. With her horrid claws the monster seized the warrior. 

28. She could not pierce his coat of mail. 

29. Her flight was swift. 

30. Beowulf severed the heads of Grendel and the monster. 

31. The frost is here. 

32. The woods are sear. 

33. The fire burns clear. 

34. He was very sure of that. 

35. This was extremely pleasing to the leader. 

36. Robin Hood's band soon scattered through the forest. 

37. Will Scarlet shall be his name. 

38. The flowers were fresh and gay. 

39. Who can draw a good bow and kill a fine buck? 

40. Robin Hood was well pleased with the answer of Will Scarlet. 



LESSON 8 

WORD MODIFIERS 

Everything we say or write is in sentences; and a sentence 
is nothing more than a subject, a predicate verb, and a 
predicate complement, together with the words, phrases, 
and clauses which may be attached to each of these three, 
to modify the meaning that the bare word would have. 
Yellow dandelions thickly dotted the smooth green grass. 



WORD MODIFIERS 21 



Subject 


Predicate verb 


Predicate complement 


dandelions 


dotted 


grass 


yellow 


thickly 


the 

smooth 

green 



The modifiers of the subject, predicate verb, and predicate 
complement are written below them. A simple diagram 
may be used to show this grouping of the modifiers with 
the words which they naturally accompany. 

Subject Predicate verb Predicate complement 

dandelions dotted — > grass 



yellow thickly 



the 

smooth 

green 



In like manner, select the principal elements in the forty 
sentences in Lesson 7, and then group with each element the 
modifiers which accompany it. At first, do this orally. 
Then, write your analysis of the sentence, in the form of 
a diagram something like the one shown above. If the 
complement is a predicate noun, pronoun, or adjective, 
let the arrow point toward the subject, to suggest their 
relation to each other. 

Teaching Direction. — Use diagrams as a kind of shorthand 
way of writing out the analysis of the sentence. Do not let the dia- 
gram supplant oral analysis. It is only a supplement to that. Re- 
gard diagrams as devices to show at a single glance the relation of 
the parts of the sentence to each other. They save the time of pupils 
in writing analyses, and also the time of the teacher in reading their 
papers. Diagrams and graphs are used in all the sciences — physics, 
geography, psychology, and education. Why deny the teacher of the 
science of language the use of this valuable device? 



2 2 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

LESSON 9 
PHRASE MODIFIERS 

Some groups of words without a subject and predicate 
perform the same function that a single word modifier 
performs. These are called phrases. 

A phrase that modifies the subject, predicate noun, or 
object, acts just like a single adejctive, and hence is called 
an adjective phrase. One that modifies the predicate verb 
acts like an adverb, and hence is called an adverbial phrase. 

In the autumn the trees of the forest shed their leaves. 

The group of words, in the autumn, goes with shed, just 
as the single adverb, then, might. The trees then shed their 
leaves. Of the forest is used to modify trees. The adjective 
forest alone would serve if we wished to shorten the sentence. 
The forest trees then shed their leaves. 

trees I shed — -> leaves 





the 

of the forest 


| their 
in the autumn 




There is no disgrace in honest labor 
There (expletive) 
disgrace is 


| no 


| in honest labor 



In a similar way, either orally or in written diagrams, 
analyze the following sentences. Indicate whether the phrase 
is adjective or adverbial. 

i. In the best books great men talk to us. 

2. Behind the clouds the sun is shining in its splendor. 

3. They found no trace of the culprit in the snow. 

4. I met your cousin at the beach yesterday. 



CLAUSE MODIFIERS 23 

5. The river was the charm of that enchanted ground. 

6. Out of this nettle, danger, we pluck this flower, safety. 

7. Honor is the subject of my story. 

8. I heard this interesting story in England. 

9. One star differeth from another star in glory. 

10. After the president, came the members of his cabinet. 

11. Trees of the forest and birds of the air have their part in the 

work of the world. 

12. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 

13. He smote fiercely with his mighty weapon. 

14. Then they went on their way toward the meeting-place. 

15. Twenty tall yeomen will draw at his word. 

16. He had laughed on the lass with his bonny black eye. 

17. The Baron of Ravensworth prances in pride. 

18. He views his domain upon Arkindale side. 

19. Then another locust went in and carried away another grain 

of corn. 

20. He stored it carefully in a strong granary 

21. This is not the month of strawberries. 

22. Green leaves grew on the trees. 

Construction of Sentences. — Construct six sentences of 
your own, each having a phrase modifier in some one of the 
four modifying relations shown in these sentences. 



LESSON 10 

CLAUSE MODIFIERS 

A clause is a group of words having a subject and predi- 
cate, but acting as a single element or as a modifier in a 
sentence. A modifying clause acts in the same way- as a 
single modifying adjective or adverb, just as a phrase does. 

These sparrows, which gather in flocks when the evenings 
become cool, act like migratory birds as they flutter about. 



24 



THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 



Subject part 

These sparrows 

which gather in flocks 

when the evenings become cool 



Predicate part 
act like migratory birds 
as they flutter about 



Notice that each of the three modifying word-groups 
contains a subject and predicate. 

Subject Predicate 

i. which gather in flocks 

2. the evenings are cool (when) 

3. they flutter about (as) 

The first clause modifies the subject, sparrows, and is just as much 
an adjective modifier as the word these. The second modifies 
gather, and is an adverb. The third modifies act, and is an 
adverb 

A diagram of the sentence follows: 

Subject Predicate 

Sparrows act 



like migratory birds 

Subject Predicate 

as they flutter about 



these 

Subject Predicate 

which I gather in flocks 



Subject 
when the evenings 



Predicate 
become cool 



Besides the clauses, there are two phrases in the sentence. 
Are they adjective or adverbial? Point out the word modi- 
fiers. Are these adjectives or adverbs? 

Select the clause modifiers from the sentences below, and 
decide which are adjective, and which are adverb. Give 
the reasons for your decision. 

1. The educated men who lived among them had been trained 

in the Roman schools. 

2. Practical men take these steps because competition has 

proved itself an enemy to commercial welfare. 



CLAUSE MODIFIERS 25 

3. Music when soft voices die vibrates in the memory. 

4. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 

5. The ornament of a house is the friend who visits it. 

6. The wicked flee when no man pursueth. 

7. The tender grace of a day that is dead will never come back 

to me. 

8. When industry goes out of the door, poverty comes in at 

the window. 

9. We may see the great Achilles, whom we knew. 

10. They beheld a broad, blue lake, which rilled the great valley. 
n. Whenever a traveler paused under the trees, he heard a 

pleasant whisper of leaves above his head. 

12. Then he lay down in the shade of a plane tree, while the 

water sang him to sleep. 

13. When he awoke, the shepherds begged him to stay. 

14. When the thunder rumbles about the summit, they think 

it is the voice of Atlas. 

15. Gluck had charge of the turnspit when there was anything 

to roast. 

16. The Black Brothers had heaps of gold, which lay about on 

the floor. 

17. A fisherman had seen Proserpina's footprints in the sand as 

he went along the beach. 

18. When they saw Ceres, they sat down on the crest of a wave. 

19. We rode along the bottom until the valley became very 

shallow. 

20. We had traveled only a short distance when we saw a herd 

of buffalo. 

Construction of Sentences. — Construct a sentence with 
a clause modifying the simple subject, one with a clause 
modifying the predicate verb, one with a clause modifying 
the predicate noun or pronoun, and another with a clause 
modifying the object complement. 

Punctuation. — 1. When an adverbial clause precedes 
the subject, it is set off from the part which follows by the 
use of a comma. Notice this in the sentences numbered 8, 

11, 13, 14, and 18. 



26 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

Whenever you write such a sentence, do not fail to insert 
the comma. To one who knows how to write correctly a 
mistake in punctuation is as glaring as a misspelled word. 

2. Any clause that merely adds an interesting piece of 
information, without changing the meaning of the sentence 
from what it would have said without the clause, is called 
a nonrestrictive clause. Such clauses are regularly set off 
by commas, no matter where they occur in the sentence. 
Observe sentences 9, 10, and 16. 

But observe also that the clauses in sentences 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
6, 7, 12, 15, 17, 19, and 20 are not set off. The meanings 
of the sentences would be changed if the clauses were 
omitted. These clauses restrict, or limit, the meaning of 
the sentence, by indicating the time or place or condition 
of the action, or by pointing out some definite person or 
place or thing. They are called restrictive clauses and are 
never set off by commas. 

Teaching Direction. — From this time forth, frequently call the 
attention of the pupils to these two customs of punctuation in any of 
their books. Sometimes authors and editors are not themselves 
accurate in punctuation. See if you can find mistakes in the punc- 
tuation in the textbooks. Do this often, until your pupils become 
conscious of punctuation and would notice inaccurate punctuation 
just as readily as they would inaccurate spelling. 

By all means insist in every written lesson upon the constant use 
of such punctuation as has been taught. This is the only way to 
make correct punctuation finally become an unconscious habit. Your 
pupils will never be comfortable and happy in the society of commas 
and semicolons until they know them as familiar friends, and as 
regularly write these marks in their sentences as they would insert 
all the letters in a word — and do this, too, without having to stop 
and think it out. 



PHRASES IN APPOSITION 



27 



LESSON 11 

PHRASES IN APPOSITION, AND AS SUBJECTS 
AND PREDICATE COMPLEMENTS 

In the following sentences phrases are used as subjects, 
as predicate complements, and in apposition with some other 
noun or pronoun. 

1. To be well is his earnest wish. 

2. His earnest wish is to be well. 

3. He sought to be well. 

4. His earnest wish, to be well, was attained. 

In the first sentence the phrase, to be well, is the subject; 
in the second it is the predicate noun; in the third, the direct 
object; and in the fourth it is in apposition with the subject. 
In each case the phrase is equivalent to the one word health. 

Analysis 



1. to 


1 


3e well | is 


< — wish 


2. wish is 


1 his 
1 earnest 

to be well 




his 
earnest 




3. he 


| sought 


-> to be well 


apposition 
4 wish (to be well) 


was attained 




his 
earnest 



State the use of the phrase in italics in each of these 
sentences. 



28 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

i. To ignore ridicule is almost impossible. 

2. To help others is to help one 's self. 

3. Mending broken china was his occupation. 

4. His occupation, mending broken china, was not profitable 

that year. 

5. Harper learned to play the flute. 

6. After that, playing his flute was his greatest pleasure. 

7. To learn to be content is to make sure of permanent happiness. 

8. His occupation was mending broken china. 

9. To regret a generous act is an unpardonable folly. 
10. The ambassador sought to meet the king. 

Construction of Sentences. — Construct four original 
sentences, with a phrase in each of these four offices. 

Sentence Analysis. — Analyze in full, orally or in a 
written diagram, such of the sentences in this lesson as the 
teacher may assign for analysis. 

Punctuation. — A word, phrase, or clause in apposition 
is set off by commas. See sentence 4 as an example. 

The parts of a series of three or more words, phrases, or 
clauses are separated by commas. 

The two preceding sentences are correctly punctuated. 
The comma is used between the last two members of the 
series before the conjunction. This is a new practice in 
punctuation, but it is observed by most careful writers and 
printers. 

LESSON 12 

CLAUSES IN APPOSITION, AND AS SUBJECTS AND 
PREDICATE COMPLEMENTS, AND AS OBJECTS 

Clauses are shown in this lesson used as substantives just 
as phrases were used in the preceding lesson. 

1. A clause as Subject. — What they sought in the new country 
was religious liberty. 



CLAUSES IN APPOSITION 29 

2. A clause as Predicate Noun. — Their greatest desire was 
that they might have liberty. 

3. A clause as Object. — After many hardships they obtained 
what they desired. 

4. A clause in Apposition with one of the principal sentence 
elements. — Their greatest desire, that they might have religious 
liberty, was secured at the expense of physical comfort. 

What is the use of each of the clauses in italics in these 
ten sentences? 

1. I have heard that the theatre is closed. 

2. His favorite saying was, "It 's an ill wind that blows nobody 

good." 

3. I do not know how long they will be gone. 

4. My belief is that he is innocent. 

5. That he is innocent was clearly proved. 

6. The statement, that all had escaped unharmed, was found to 

be true. 

7. He said that he would go. 

8. That he will go is almost certain. 

9. My belief is that he will go. 

10. His decision, that he would go to-morrow, will be adhered to. 

Sentence Analysis. — ■ Analyze orally or in a written dia- 
gram the four of these sentences which the teacher may 
designate. 

Construction of Sentences. — Write four sentences of 
your own to show four noun uses of clauses. 

Punctuation. — Remember in your own writing always to 
use commas to set off words, phrases, and clauses in appo- 
sition, as in sentences 6 and 10. 



30 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

LESSON 13 

ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 

We do not always speak in complete sentences. Some- 
times what we would say to make a complete sentence is 
so well understood by both speaker and hearer that to say 
it all would be not only unnecessary, but awkward. 

He is taller than she (is tall). 

Who is there? I (am here). 

Where do you go next? To Omaha. (I shall go to Omaha.) 

Whose samples are those? Brown and Reed's. (These are Brown 

and Reed's samples.) 
Fred is sixteen (years old). 
Go now, or (do) not (go) at all. 

You did not see them? Why (did you) not (see them)? 
(I) Thank you for the roses. 
While (he was) running, Joe stumbled and fell. 
I respect my teacher more than they (respect their teacher). 
I respect my teacher more than (I respect) them. 

Complete the sentences which follow by inserting the 
words which, for the sake of brevity and clearness, we are 
accustomed to omit. 

i. Come to the desk, Elizabeth. 

2. Read that as soon as possible. 

3. Arthur reads faster than his sister. 

4. Whose book? Harvey 's. 

5. Why such excitement? 

6. Then, if ever, come perfect days. 

7. Will you bring the pictures Tuesday? Yes, I will. 

8. Charles jumps a foot farther than James can. 

9. You know she likes you better than him. 

10. You know she likes you better than he. 

11. While speeding, he ran into the curb. 

12. Who will try to climb higher than I? 

13. Is this as good as yours? Yes. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES 31 

14. Clara's new dress is prettier than Marjorie's. 

15. Name three products of Louisiana. Sugar, rice, and cotton. 

16. Which way shall we turn here? To the left. 

Construction of Sentences. — Listen to the speech .of 

your schoolmates, and set down five Elliptical Sentences 
which you hear within the day. Do not regard such expres- 
sions as faulty. They are often clearer and more emphatic 
than the full expression would be. 



LESSON 14 
COMPOUND SENTENCES 

Notice the construction of these sentences: 

1. Massachusetts and Virginia have opposite ideas in govern- 

ment. 

2. The timid animal came and stood by the running stream. 

3. Such work requires skill, patience, and care. 

4. The timid animal came down to the water, and I took a snap- 

shot of it. 

Each of the first three sentences makes a single statement. 
In the first the subject is compound. In the second the 
predicate verb is compound. In the third the object com- 
plement is compound. 

The fourth sentence makes two distinct statements, each 
containing a subject and predicate. It is a compound sen- 
tence. Compounding the subject, the predicate verb, or the 
predicate complement, or all three of them, would not make 
a compound sentence. There must be two or more dis- 
tinct statements logically related to each other. 

5. Massachusetts and Virginia represent and uphold two ideas 

and conceptions of government. 

6. Massachusetts upholds one conception of government, and 

Virginia stands for another. 



32 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

The fifth example is a simple sentence, even though all 
three of the main elements of it are compound. It makes 
but one statement. The sixth sentence is compound, for 
it makes two statements logically related to each other. 
Any member of a compound sentence may, of course, have 
modifying dependent clauses. 

Punctuation. — The parts of a compound sentence are 
always separated by a comma or a semicolon. If the parts are 
joined by and, but, for, either . . . or, or neither . . . nor, 
a comma is used. 

If the parts are joined by such words as moreover, how- 
ever, since, therefore, so, accordingly, besides, also, thus, then, 
still, and otherwise, a semicolon is used. 

When no connecting word joins the members of a com- 
pound sentence, a semicolon is used. 

Teaching Direction. — When a rule of punctuation has once 
been taught, insist upon its use thereafter in every bit of written 
work the pupil does. In order to live happily and comfortably 
with punctuation the student must reduce it to a habit. 

Punctuate the following sentences. The first four are 
correctly punctuated already. Show that they are. Are 
there others that are correct? 

i. Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 
Had in her sober livery all things clad. 

2. There lies the port; the vessel puffs her sail; 
There gloom the dark broad seas. 

3. The wakeful bloodhound rose and shook his hide. 

4. These reasons are clear to all; moreover, they seem sufficient. 

5. Patience is a bitter plant but it has sweet fruit. 

6. Night's candles are burnt out and jocund day 
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain-tops. 

7. Cease to do evil learn to do well. 

8. The morn was clouded but no shower fell. 



COMPOUND- SENTENCES 33 

9. The evil that men do lives after them 
The good is oft interred with their bones. 

10. Long at the window he stood and wistfully gazed on the 

landscape. 

11. My books and papers have been taken from the table and 

shelves. 

12. Suddenly she lost all fear and her voice became steady and 

strong. 

13. Every duty we omit obscures some truth we should have 

known. 

14. Indians and white men made ready their camps and defenses. 

15. Sun and wind and rain encouraged and mellowed every 

growing thing and these responded to their call. 

16. These are the usual rules however there are some exceptions 

to them. 

17. You may be sure you are right but you have not proved your 

answer yet. 

18. The class had long been working at nouns and verbs. 

19. The class did not understand nouns and adjectives seemed 

to puzzle them too. 

20. He tried his best to learn to punctuate for he considered 

punctuation necessary. 

21. Punctuation in a long sentence acts like signboards along an 

unfamiliar road therefore it should be learned thoroughly. 

22. We practised on many sentences thus we came to under- 

stand the use of commas and semicolons. 

23. Practice is necessary otherwise one forgets the rules. 

24. Neither could he remember what was said nor find the rules 

in the book. 

25. Either you must learn punctuation or you will always be 

in doubt about how to write correctly. 

26. Mark took a thorough course in agriculture thus he became 

a scientific farmer. 

27. This was necessary otherwise he would have failed in irrigated 

farming. 

28. The college course assured Mark's success since he already 

knew the practical side of farming. 

29. Punctuation marks are convenient guides moreover they are 

necessary for the sake of clearness. 



34 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

30. Peace is something we have to fight for God does n't make 
us a present of it. 

Construction of Sentences. — Make two compound sen- 
tences, the parts of which are properly separated by commas. 
Two separated by semicolons. Make three simple sen- 
tences having one or more of the principal elements com- 
pounded. Punctuate these properly. 



LESSON 15 

A SUMMARY OF PART I AND A REVIEW 

THE SENTENCE 

A sentence is an expression of a complete thought. 

Subject and Predicate. — A sentence has two necessary 
parts, a subject and a predicate. The predicate may be 
a single verb, a verb phrase, or a verb or verb phrase com- 
bined with a predicate adjective, a predicate noun, or a 
predicate pronoun; or it may have a direct object as the 
complement of the verb. 

Independent Elements. — Sentences may contain inde- 
pendent elements in addition to the subject and predicate 
and their adjuncts and modifiers. The independent elements 
in common use are: 

1. Vocatives (calling words). 

2. Appositives (words, phrases, or clauses in apposition). 
.3. Responsives (yes and no). 

4. Expletives (it and there). 

5. Interjections, Exclamations, Preparatory Words (well, 
why, etc.), and Exclamatory Nominatives. 

6. Parenthetical Expressions. 



THE SENTENCE 35 

7. Absolute Constructions. 

8. Pleonastic Constructions. 

Punctuation. — 1. A period is used at the end of a state- 
ment, a command, or a request. 

2. A question mark is used after a sentence that is a 
question. 

3. An exclamation point is used after a sentence that is 
an exclamation. 

4. All the independent elements, except the Interjections 
and Exclamations and the Expletives, it and there, are set 
off from the other parts of the sentence by commas. 

5. Compound sentences joined by one of the simple con- 
junctions, and, but, for, etc., are separated by commas. 

6. Other compound sentences require a semicolon to 
separate the coordinate parts. 

7. Nonrestrictive words, phrases, and clauses are set off 
by commas. 

8. An adverbial clause preceding the main clause of the 
sentence is set off by a comma. 

Modifiers. — The principal members of a sentence may 
be modified by words, phrases, and clauses. If one of 
these modifies a noun or pronoun, it does the work of an 
adjective, and is called an adjective modifier. If it modifies 
anything else, it does the work of an adverb, and is called an 
adverbial modifier. 

Sentence Analysis. — In analyzing a sentence containing 
a phrase or clause used as subject, predicate complement, 
or in apposition, do not consider it necessary at this time 
to separate the phrase or clause into -its parts. Regard 
each one as a unit. 

Write out the omitted parts of elliptical sentences before 
analyzing them. 



36 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

Analyze these sentences, in a manner similar to that 
shown below. 

i. Those idle words, neighbor, are past remedy. 
Neighbor (vocative) 
Subject Predicate 

words are past remedy 



j those 
I idle 

2. We live in an ascending scale when we live happily. 

Subject Predicate 

we | live 

j in an ascending scale 
I when we live happily 

3. To have many of these qualities is to be spiritually rich. 

Subject Predicate 

to have qualities is to be rich 



many | spiritually 

of these 



4. There is always a new horizon for the onward-looking man. 

5. Desire and curiosity are the two eyes through which a man 

sees the world in the most enchanted colors. 

6. We may study forever, and we are never as learned as we 

would. 

7. We have never made a statue worthy of our dreams. 

Note. — The students who may wish to read the whole essay from 
which the first seven sentences are taken will find it to be Stevenson's 
" El Dorado." 

8. The President sent a special message to Congress. 

9. Above us the clouds were a brilliant golden color. 

10. The flyer and his companion drove their machine across the 
country. 



THE SENTENCE 37 

11. Why delay longer? 

12. Fanny is seventeen, and has completed her high- school course. 

13. This man, the drill sergeant of the company, belongs to the 

regular army. 

14. What they wanted was authority and means. 

15. The county and city obtained what they wanted. 

16. The city demanded and secured the protection it needed. 

17. Do you not like this magazine better than that? 

18. Whose book have you, Clara? 

19. These pears, I understand, came from Colorado. 

20. What we want is a better understanding of the principles 

of this subject. 

Teaching Direction. — Young people should come to know the 
structure of both colloquial and literary language. Of the two, col- 
loquial is the more important. For this reason both are represented 
in the sentences in this book. Give your pupils to understand that 
colloquial English is good English — just as good in its place as 
literary English is in its. 



PART II 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

AND THEIR 

INFLECTIONS AND FUNCTIONS 

LESSON 1 

There are just eight kinds of words to be used in speak- 
ing and writing. If one should talk steadily for a month 
and use all the words in the dictionary, he would use only 
these eight kinds. They are the parts of speech, the pieces 
out of which speech is constructed. These Parts of Speech 
are: Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepo- 
sitions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 

It is not very important to know a faultless definition of 
each of these; but it is helpful to one who wishes to speak 
and write accurately and easily to be able to recognize each 
part of speech readily. 

i. Nouns are names. 

chair, Paris, war, Emerson, radiator, paper, light, clever- 
ness, sweetness, herd, Mary, etc. 

2. Pronouns are words used to take the place of nouns 
when we do not wish to continue repeating the naming word. 

she, it, they, who, etc. 

3. Adjectives are words which accompany nouns or pro- 
nouns and modify or limit their meanings. 

white, sweet, this, a, cold, etc. 
39 



4 o THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

4. Verbs are words whose business it is to make the 
predication in sentences. To say it in another way, verbs 
assert or ask. 

read, run, call, burn, etc. 

5. Adverbs, like adjectives, are modifying words. They 
accompany, not nouns and pronouns, but verbs, adjectives, 
other adverbs, and sometimes even prepositions. 

perfectly, slowly, truly, evenly, etc. 

6. Prepositions. About twenty-five words in common 
use, like in, on, down, over, under, through, etc., are used to 
cause a noun or pronoun to modify another word. These 
are prepositions. They bridge the gap between the noun 
or pronoun and the word which one wishes to have modi- 
fied, and so make an adjective-phrase or adverbial-phrase 
modifier instead of a single-word modifier. 

You cannot say, "Frank Corson built his house the 
hill." You are trying to modify the word built by the word 
hill in such a way as to show where. You may say, "Frank 
Corson built his house on the hill." On is the bridging word, 
the preposition, used to attach hill to built, as an adverbial 
modifier. 

7. Conjunctions are words used to connect words, phrases, 
or clauses with each other, or to cause a subordinate clause 
to modify something in a main clause. 

and, but, that, whenever, wherever, etc. 

8. Interjections are exclamatory words. 

alas, oh, etc. 

They do not combine with the other words in the sentence; 
they are always outside the structure of the sentence, and 



PARTS OF SPEECH 



41 



may, if strictly considered, be denied a place in the family 
of words that are really parts of our speech. 



RECOGNIZING THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Thus with the year 
Seasons return, but not to me returns 
Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, 
Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 
Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine. 

In these four and a half lines of Milton's poetry there 
are thirty-six words. They are: 



Nouns 


Pronouns 


Adjectives 


Verbs 


year 


me 


the 


return 


seasons 




the 


returns 


day 


- 


sweet 




approach 




vernal 




even 




human 




morn 




divine 




sight 








bloom 








summer's 








rose 








flocks 








herds 








face 








Adverbs 


Prepositions 


Conjunctions 


Interjections 


Thus 


with 


but 


(No interjections 


not 


to 


or 


are used) 




of 


or 






of 


or 
or 
or 
or 
or 





What part of speech is each word in the following sentences? 

1. And, oh, grant divine contentment to me now. 

2. Who are your best friends? 



42 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

3. This brown canvas tent was set under a great spruce tree. 

4. Generosity was always a prominent quality of his. 

5. Under this sheltering roof they came no more. 

6. Alas! the darkness of despair and grief descends upon him 

while he is looking patiently for a ray of hope. 

7. Red candles and holly are very appropriate for Christmas. 

8. When we hesitate, we betray our doubt of the answer. 

9. I saw a host of golden daffodils. 
10. They flash upon the inward eye, 

Which is the bliss of solitude. 



LESSON 2 

Select the words from the following sentence that name 
persons or things. 

At this moment he felt somebody pull his elbow, and to his 
great relief he heard the friendly voice and saw the good-natured 
face of his cousin Ben. 

The nouns are: moment, somebody, elbow, relief, voice, 
face, cousin, and Ben. 

Names that belong to some individual person, place, or 
thing begin with a capital letter when written. One may 
call about half the members of any school by the name 
boy, but perhaps only one in the room by the name Ben. 

From the following paragraph write the nouns in a column, 
making sure to begin all the proper (individual) names 
with capital letters. 

Into the midst of all this riot and turmoil another writer was 
born in London, who years afterward was to become the author 
of another wonderful book, "Robinson Crusoe." His father was 
a butcher named Foe, a good man, who knew that his son had 
talent, and who wanted him to become a preacher — a Puritan 
or dissenting preacher, like Bunyan, for the Foe family were dis- 
senters. So the boy Daniel was sent to school for some five years 
*>r more. But he had no notion of becoming a preacher. Perhaps 



PARTS OF SPEECH 43 

he thought the life of a dissenting preacher under such conditions 
was too hard. 

Select from this list of names all that should begin with 
capital letters and write them in a column. 

man, arthur, chair, grade, paris, captain, andrews, mark, 
teacher, denver, katy, blacksmith, portland, Wisconsin, 
american, carpenter, baker, judge baker, ben, rlorida, alice, 
berlin, mars, desert, mexico. 

Write a list of ten nouns that should begin with capital 
letters and ten that should not. 

Teaching Direction. — Since the old classifications of nouns into 
common and proper, collective, abstract, and verbal do not func- 
tion in the process of learning to write and speak, except in two or 
three minor ways, it seems best not to make detached lessons of mean- 
ingless machinery. When we say that each individual name begins 
with a capital letter, we have given all the useful information there 
is about common and proper nouns. 

The agreement of the collective noun with its verb will be shown 
in Part III. The uses of verbals {infinitives, participles, and 
gerunds) will be shown in connection with the verb, instead of being 
exhibited in part here {the noun-uses) , and the other uses elsewhere. 
This disposes of quite a bit of grammatical lumber — all the useless 
classification of the nouns. 

The next lessons will take up the spelling of plurals, and pos- 
sessives, and our gender nouns, and the -ess suffix to indicate feminine 
gender. That is all there is left of the properties of nouns — person, 
number, gender, and case. 

LESSON 3 

PLURAL FORMS OF NOUNS 

1. The commonest way to cause an English noun to 
mean more than one thing is to add -5 or -es to it. Boy, 
boys; girl, girls; table, tables; spoon, spoons; church, 
churches. 



44 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

If the -5 sound adds a syllable as you speak the word, 
-es is used. Box (one syllable), boxes (two syllables); dish, 
dishes; brush, brushes. 

There are other ways of forming plurals of English nouns, 
each applying to a number of words. 

2. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant usually 
change the y to i and add -es. City, cities; lady, ladies; 
baby, babies; party, parties. 

3. Most words ending in -/, fe, or -ffe change the / to v 
and add -es. Knife, knives; wife, wives; leaf, leaves. 

But notice that we use: cliff, cliffs; staff, staffs 1 ; roof, 
roofs; and some others. 

4. Nouns ending in usually add only s, but a few words 
add es. These words are: echo, hero, negro, no, potato, 
tomato, tornado, torpedo, and possibly two or three 
others. 

The following words are spelled both ways, but oes is 
preferred: calico, cargo, domino, flamingo, volcano, bravado, 
motto, buffalo, mulatto, and grotto. 

5. A few old words have a remnant of a plural in -en. 
Once eyen or eyne was the plural for eye; housen for house, etc. 
But now the words ox, oxen, and brother, brethren, are all that 
are left of the pure en plural. Children is an en plural added 
to what was already an old er plural, childer. 

6. Other nouns that are old in the language change the 
main vowel to form plurals: tooth, teeth; foot, feet; man, 
men; woman, women; mouse, mice; and several more. 

7. Some nouns which have come into the English language 
from a foreign language retain the foreign plurals; but the 
tendency is for the word to take the usual 5 or es plural as 
soon as it becomes a very familiar word in common use in 

1 Staves is also a recognized plural of staff. See note Number 9 
below. 



PARTS OF SPEECH 



45 



English: alumnus, alumni; beau, beaux; phenomenon, 
phenomena. 

8. A few nouns have but one form for both singular and 
plural: deer, trout, sheep, etc. 

g. A small group of nouns have two plurals, one mean- 
ing one thing and the other another. Brothers, brethren; 
dies, dice; staffs, staves. 

10. Compound words, like brother-in-law, add the plural 
ending to the more important noun part of the word, 
brothers-in-law; but words like spoonful, not hyphenated, 
simply add 5. 

ii. Letters, figures, and signs, when used as nouns, add 
the apostrophe and s to form the plural: the table of fs, 
your a's, these H's. 

Teaching Direction. — After going over with your pupils the 
various ways of making noun plurals, use as a written spelling 
lesson the exercise which follows. Pronounce the word, and have 
the pupils write first the singular and then the plural form. All 
this matter of plurals is spelling, and should be taught as a series 
of spelling lessons. 



i. brush 


18. 


fox 


34- 


wasp 


2. lady 


19. 


mercy 


35- 


thief 


3. knife 


20. 


quail 


36. 


cup 


4. ring 


21. 


map 


37- 


sheep 


5. ox 


22. 


child 


38. 


mouse 


6. foot 


23- 


city 


39- 


key 


7. man 


24. 


tooth 


40. 


brother 


8. shelf 


25. 


potato 


41. 


piano 


9. echo 


26. 


fancy 


42. 


paper 


10. box 


27. 


John 


43- 


hiss 


11. Mary 


28. 


contract 


44. 


sister-in-law 


12. staff 


29. 


woman 


45. 


Henry 


13. face 


30. 


box 


46. 


bean 


14. rifle 


3i- 


attorney-at-law 


47- 


half 


15. attorney 


32. 


phenomenon 


48. 


alumnus 


16. solo 


33- 


Jones 


49- 


valley 


17. church 






5o. 


tomato 



46 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

LESSON 4 

POSSESSIVE FORMS OF NOUNS 

In the sentences shown below there are nouns used like 
adjectives to modify the meaning of other nouns. 
The wing was broken. 

This sentence states in a general way that a wing was 
broken. But when I say, The left wing was broken, I have 
modified (changed) the statement by specifying which 
wing. I used an adjective to modify your notion of wing. 
I can also modify the idea wing by using the adjective form 
of a noun. The adjective form of a noun denotes possession 
or ownership, and is, therefore, called the Possessive form. 

The bird's wing was broken. 
The bird's left wing was broken. 

These possessive forms of nouns may take adjective 
modifiers just the same as the common form of the nouns . 

The wild duck's left wing was broken. 

In speaking we have no difficulty in choosing the correct 
possessive forms of nouns; but we have to learn to spell 
them so as to be able to write them correctly. They are 
formed as follows: 

i. Possessive forms of nouns meaning but one thing 
(singular nouns) are formed by adding the apostrophe 
and 5 (V). 

This man's name. That girl's dress. 
The robin's feathers. The child's books. 

2. Possessives of the plural nouns, whose plurals are regu- 
larly formed by adding s, are made by adding only the 
apostrophe. 



POSSESSIVE FORMS OF NOUNS 47 

The boys' hats. The horses' manes. 

The captains' uniforms. Twenty hens' broods. 

3. A few nouns ending in a hissing sound (a sibilant), 
and followed by a word beginning with another sibilant, 
would be very unpleasant to the ear if another s sound were 
added. On this account an exception is made to the rule 
for singular possessives, and they are written with the 
apostrophe only. 

For conscience' sake. The princess' silver shoe-buckles. 

These cases are rare. Careful writers nearly always fol- 
low the regular custom of using the 's. The unpleasant 
sibilant combination can sometimes be avoided by changing 
the order of the words in the sentence and by using a phrase 
beginning with of instead of the possessive form of the 
noun. 

The silver buckles of the princess's slippers. The silver buckles 
of the slippers of the princess. For the sake of conscience. 

4. Nouns whose plurals are not formed by adding s to 
the singular, form their possessives just as singular nouns 
do. They add the apostrophe and s ('5). 

men, men's; geese, geese's; women, women's; mice, mice's. 

Three additional observations about possessives: 

1. The possessive forms are not often used except to 
denote ownership. You may say, the lady's cloak, and the 
driver's gloves, but not the house's roof, or the eggs' price. 
The customary form in such cases as the last two is to say, 
the roof of the house, and the price of the eggs. 

2. One may indicate ownership, however, by either the 
possessive form or the prepositional phrase with of. 

The lady's cloak, or the cloak of the lady. 
The driver's gloves, or the gloves of the driver. 



48 



THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 



3. We do not use the 's with pronouns. We do not write 
her's or their' s or it's. Frequently we write it 's as an abbre- 
viation of it is, but never to denote possession. 

Teaching Direction. — The possessive forms of nouns should be 
taught as a spelling lesson. Pronounce the following words and 
have your pupils write them in the four forms: (1) singular, 
(2) singular possessive, (3) plural, and (4) plural possessive. 



xample. — 1. 


child, 


2. child's, 3. 


children 


, 4. children's. 


1. man 




9. mouse 




17. sheep 


2. woman 




10. pupil 




18. hero 


3. boy 




11. fish 




19. judge 


4. girl 




12. brother 




20. lady 


5. soldier 




13. sister 




21. gentleman 


6. horse 




14. cousin 




22. knife 


7. cat 




15. aunt 




23. goose 


8. dog 




16. deer 
LESSON 


5 


24. owner 



GENDER FORMS OF NOUNS 

A number of the modern languages have endings for 
nouns, pronouns, and even adjectives, to indicate whether 
the person or thing named is male or female. Only a few 
English nouns show the gender (the sex) of the thing named. 
In other languages gender does not always indicate sex, but 
in English it does. For example: 

man is masculine gender (male) 

woman is feminine gender (female) 

prince is masculine gender (male) 

princess is feminine gender (female) 

Where gender is indicated in English nouns, entirely dif- 
ferent words are used for male and female (masculine and 
feminine gender). 



GENDER FORMS OF NOUNS 



49 



boy 
cock 

gander 

drake 

bull 

boar 

man 

son 



king 


queen 


bachelor 


maid 


horse 


mare 


buck 


doe 


male 


female 


father 


mother 


husband 


wife 


beau 


belle 



girl 

hen 

goose 

duck 

cow 

sow 

woman 

daughter 

The ending -ess is used in English with the masculine form 
of a few words to indicate feminine gender. This is the 
only feminine ending, except one, for English nouns. 

duke duchess 

actor actress 

hunter huntress 

tiger tigress 

count countess 

Exception. — Hero has the word heroine for the feminine, as 
if -ine were a feminine ending. 

Teaching Direction. — Gender applies to so few English nouns 
that it would not be worth while to teach it if it were not for the agree- 
ment of the personal pronoun with its noun antecedent in gender. 
Of course, there are no neuter forms for nouns; but nouns without 
gender are referred to by the neuter singular pronoun it. When 
your pupils are analyzing or parsing, do not have them speak of 
the gender of nouns unless the form of the word actually indicates sex. 



prince 
lion 


princess 
lioness 


waiter 


waitress 


master 


mistress 


emperor 


empress 



Assignment. — Do not use these nouns in sentences, but use 
appropriate gender forms of pronouns instead: 



I. 


queen l 


8. 


master 


15. 


emperor 


2. 


brother-in-law 


9- 


Margaret 


16. 


Mr. Wilson 


3- 


shepherd 


IO. 


boat 


17. 


glowworm 


4- 


niece 


ii. 


moon 


18. 


book 


5- 


maidservant 


12. 


squaw 


10. 


tiger 


6. 


student 


13. 


child 


20. 


Tennyson 


7- 


lad 


14. 


hen 


21. 


King George 



1 Example: Her daughters are called princesses. 



50 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

LESSON 6 

PRONOUNS 

The English language has a set of words which are used 
mainly to avoid the awkward repetition of the noun. ■ These 
are called pronouns. If we were willing to say, 

The young girl left the young girl's old hat at home and went 
to the milliner's to buy the young girl a new bonnet to go with 
the young girl's Easter frock, 

we should not need to use pronouns at all. But notice how 
much less awkward the same sentence is when we avoid 
repeating the noun and adjective: 

The young girl left her old hat at home and went to the milliner's 
to buy herself a new bonnet to go with her Easter frock. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

Five pronouns show by their form whether they refer to 
the person speaking, the person or thing spoken to, or the 
person or thing spoken of. These five — I, you (thou) , he, she, 
and it — are for this reason called personal pronouns. 

Like the nouns, they have different forms for their dif- 
ferent uses in the sentence. That is, they are inflected 
(bent about) to make them fit into their places. 

These pronouns are so inflected as to show person, number, 
gender, and case. Below, in the form of a tabulation, you 
will see all the forms of all the five personal pronouns. The 
word thou was formerly the pronoun used to refer to the 
person spoken to; but now we use you, except in prayers and 
other forms of solemn speech. 



Second Person 


Third Person 


Singular Number 


Singular Number 


you {thou) he she it 
your or yours his her or hers ih 
{thy or thine) 
you {thee) him her it 


Plural Number 


Plural Number 


you {ye) 
your or yours 
you 


they 

their or theirs 

them 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS 51 

First Person 
Singular Number 

Nominative Case / 
Possessive Case my or mine 

Objective Case me 

Plural Number 
Nominative we 

Possessive our or ours 

Objective us 

You will observe the following things about the forms 
and uses of these personal pronouns. 

1. There are only twenty-eight (liferent forms, and only 
twenty-three of these are in common use. 

2. The solemn style of the second person is not fre- 
quently used. 

3. The singular forms of the second person are the same 
as the plural. In fact, we have just within recent times 
grown into the habit of using these plural forms instead of 
the old solemn singular forms thou, thy, thine, and thee. 
We still feel that you is plural even when it refers to only 
one person. We say: Mary, you were late this morning. 
Regularly we use a plural verb with you. We should never 
say: you was. 

4. Most of the personal pronouns have two forms for 
the possessive case. The first of these forms — for example, 
my — is used when the pronoun precedes its noun as an 
adjective modifier. This is my book. The second form — 
for example, mine — is used as a predicate pronoun follow- 
ing the verb. This book is mine, or after a preposition: 
This book is one of mine. 

5. He and it do not have these two possessive forms. 
One form serves both the purposes mentioned in 4. 



52 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

6. Only the pronouns representing the third person have 
forms for gender, and these have them only in the singular 
number. 

7. Nouns have only two forms to indicate sex, the mascu- 
line and feminine. The third personal pronoun in the sin- 
gular number has another gender form, the neuter it. This 
word refers to nouns which have no sex. The word it is the 
only neuter gender word in the English language. 



LESSON 7 
THE GENDER OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 

1. We learn gender so as to know what form of the 
pronouns to use in referring to nouns. We say: 

The lady planned her own dinner. 
The man brought his own typewriter. 
The oak drops its leaves in the fall. 

2. A few nouns are personified, and so are regarded as 
masculine or feminine. 

The sun set in all his splendor. 

The pale moon showed her broad disk. 

The Majestic (steamship) came into her dock. 

3. We use the masculine form of the pronoun to refer 
to nouns representing both male and female. 

Each one should do his best. 

Every citizen is expected to do his duty. 

4. We use masculine pronouns, without reference to sex, 
to refer to large animals notable for strength. 

The bear broke his way through the bushes. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS 53 

5. A small animal usually is referred to as it. 

6. Sometimes animals notable for such qualities as deli- 
cacy, gentleness, and grace, are thought of as feminine. 

The mouse has laid up her store for the winter. 

7. A small child is frequently referred to as it. 

Teaching Direction. — Have the pupils construct sentences using 
each one of the twenty-eight personal pronoun forms in its appro- 
priate place, and have them say also which form is used in each 
sentence. This may be an oral exercise. 

You will observe in the sentences used as illustrations 
below that the pronoun agrees with its antecedent (the 
noun which means the same thing) in number and gender. 

1. Mary forgot her book. 

2. The girls forgot their books. 

3. The oak tree drops its leaves. 

4. The man has his overcoat. 

5. He did not forget it. 

In the first the noun Mary is singular number and femi- 
nine gender. So is the pronoun her. 

Test each of the other nouns for number and gender and 
see if the pronoun and antecedent agree in each case. 



LESSON 8 

THE CASE FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

The personal pronouns have distinct forms to be used in 
certain positions in sentences. The nominative forms are 
used mainly as subjects, or as predicate pronouns. The 
possessive forms are used as adjective modifiers of nouns, 
or as predicate adjectives. This is his book. This book 
is his. The objective forms are used mainly as objects 



54 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

of verbs, as indirect objects of verbs, and as objects of 
prepositions. 

Written Lesson. — Use each one of the twenty-three common 
pronoun forms in a sentence, either as subject, predicate pro- 
noun, predicate adjective, object of a verb, indirect object, or 
object of a preposition, or as an adjective modifier. Make 
twenty-three sentences in all. 

Teaching Direction. — The teacher may show the class how to 
use the solemn forms in sentences. Call attention to the special 
forms of the verbs which accompany these forms. 

INTENSIVE AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUN FORMS 

The syllables self (singular) and selves (plural) are added 
to a few of the personal pronoun forms, either to increase 
emphasis or to show the action as reflecting upon the subject. 

Intensive Use: 

I myself saw it there. 
George himself did the work. 

Reflexive Use: 

They only injure themselves by doing so. 

He serves himself when he serves his country. 

THE FUNCTION OF THESE IN SPEECH AND WRITING 

The common mistakes made in the use of these forms are 
two: 

i. Many people think that the use of the pronoun / is 
egotistic, and so they substitute the intensive myself for I. 
Alice and myself will bring sandwiches. This is not good 
usage. Egotism is shown by one's manner more than by 
one's words. / is a perfectly good word. Myself only serves 
to emphasize the importance of the speaker. 

2. Some uncultured people assume that hisself and their- 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS 55 

selves may be used in the same way as myself, herself, and 
itself, either as intensives or reflexives. The correct forms 
are himself and themselves. 

EXERCISES 

Select the proper case form for each of these sentences. 

(Use I or me) 

Group I 

i. Who will go? . 

2. He is taller than . 

3. She knew it to be - 1 

4. He is not so old as . 

5. Wait for Helen and . 

6. She knew that it was . 

7. You and will go together. 

8. May Annie and go home? 

9. If you were , should you go? 

10. Jessie gave Roy and some new books. 

11. Father expects you or to meet him. 

(Use we or us) 
Group II 

1. Our parents are wiser than . 

2. The Browns as well as , are invited. 

3. It isn't for such as to decide that matter. 

4. That is a secret among girls. 

5. It was whom you saw. 

6. He inquired whether girls were going to the party. 

7. He knew it to be . 

8. He knew that it was . 

9. She is no better than . 

10. Is it like to do such a thing? 

1 The proper form here is me; for the verb to be takes the same case 
after it as before it. The pronoun it is here in the objective case, sub- 
ject of the infinitive to be. The pronoun which follows to be should 
accordingly be in the objective case. 



56 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

(Use he or him) 
Group III 

i. I knew that it was . 

2. I knew it to be . 

3. Was it you saw ? 

4. It must have been . 

5. If I were , I should not do that. 

6. Whom can I trust, if not ? 

7. Let who can, answer this question. 

8. What can you expect from such as ? 

9. You should be ashamed to do no better than . 

10. that overcometh will I make a pillar in the temple. 

(Use she or her) 
Group IV 

1. When will you and come again? 

2. Father told you and to stay here. 

3. With Edith and I have no trouble. 

4. Few girls play as well as . 

5. Few girls play better than . 

6. I know no one quite like . 

7. I suppose that the exquisite player is . 

8. I supposed the accomplished pianist to be . 

9. No one danced better than . 

10. What was the trouble between you and 1 

(Use they or them) 

Group V 
1 . I am sure it was . 



2. It must have been . 

3. I took it to be . 

4. who fail to-day must stay after school. 

5. who fail I will keep after school to-day. 

6. Let none touch it but who are clean. 

7. It isn't for such as to dictate to us. 

8. Their opponents were heavier than . 

9. It could not have been , for were at home. 

10. None are so blind as that will not see. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS 57 

(Use who or whom) 
Group VI 

1. I do not know will finish this work. 

2. I do not know he has met. 

3. do you think I am? 

4. do you take me to be? 

5. I do not know to send. 

6. did you say sits near you? 

7. • were you speaking about? 

8. do you think will be elected? 

9. — ~ do you expect to call upon next? 

10. She is a girl I know to be trustworthy. 

11. We like to be with those we love, and we know 

love us, let them be they may. 



LESSON 9 

PRACTISE IN THE USE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

There is nothing grammatically incorrect about this 
sentence: I and Harriet did most of the work. But polite- 
ness requires that the word representing the speaker should 
take the less prominent place in the sentence. If you are 
confessing a fault, you may, however, put yourself in the 
prominent position: I and Charles are responsible for the 
damage. 

We girls or us girls, we boys or us boys, etc. Whether to 
say we or us girls, we or us boys, depends upon the function 
of the pronoun in the sentence. 

1. We boys belong to the Owl Patrol. 

2. The Scout-Master sent us boys into camp. 

3. We girls are organizing a camp fire. 

4. These honor beads were all earned by us girls. 



58 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

Notice in each case that the use of we or us depends upon 
the place the words fill in the sentences. In the first and 
third, we is subject. In the second, us is the object of sent. 
In the fourth, us is the object of the preposition by. 

An easy way to settle this point is to omit the noun 
which follows we or us. You would not be tempted to say: 

i. Us belong to the Owl Patrol. 

2. The Scout-Master sent we into camp. 

Choose the correct form in each sentence and give the 
reason for your choice. 

Example. — Mother sent Clara and (/, me) on an errand before 
school this morning. Me is the correct form. It is the direct 
object of sent. 

i. Nobody except you and (/, me) has come. 

2. Boys who work like (us, we) will succeed. 

3. Sarah and (she, her) are going together. 

4. I brought these for my brother and (/, me, myself). 

5. Are you sure the teacher meant (he and I, him and me). 

6. June spells better than either you or (/, me). 

7. You and (he, him) may go now. 

8. (She, her) and (they, them) have all bought tickets. 

9. This is (him and her, he and she). 

10. Father brought both (we and they, us and them). 

11. She called to John and (we, us). 

12. Who is knocking at the door? It is (/, me). 

13. Who is knocking at the door? It is (we, us). 

14. Who is knocking at the door? It is (he and she, him and her) 

15. Are you calling Margaret and (I, me)? 

16. Do you expect both (she and we, her and us) to go? 

17. Everybody is going but Mark and (she, her). 

18. Everybody is going but (they, them) and Mark. 

19. Everybody is going except (me and him, he and /). 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 59 

LESSON 10 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 

Three pronouns are used to ask questions. They are 
who, which, and what. These words are called Interrogative 
Pronouns, because the sentences in which they occur in- 
terrogate (ask questions). They do not change their form 
to show person, number, or gender; and only the first of them 
has case forms, — Nominative, Who, Possessive, Whose, Ob- 
jective, Whom. 

1. Who is that? 

2. Whose is that? 

3. Whom did you expect? 

4. For whom were these intended? 

The words which and what have no other forms. 

THE USES OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 

Who may be used only when its antecedent is a person. 
Which may be used when the antecedent is either a person 
or a thing. What refers only to things. 

Who is making that noise in the basement? — Fred, who is nailing 
up a box. But not: The cat, who knocked some boxes over. 

Which makes the more noise, Fred or the cat? — Fred does. The 
cat does. 

What was that noise? A falling box. 

WHO AND WHOM 

Who, the interrogative pronoun, is always a subject. 
Whom is always the object of a verb or a preposition. A 
speaker must take care to select the proper form of this 
interrogative word. Position does not help to determine 



60 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

which to use, for the interrogative is always the first word 
in the sentence, or near the first. 

INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES 

The words which and what are also used with nouns as 
interrogative adjectives to ask questions. 

Interrogative pronoun: What was he saying? 

Interrogative adjective: What story did he relate? 

Interrogative pronoun: Which do you prefer? 

Interrogative adjective: Which girl shall I send? 

Use. — As interrogative adjectives, both which and what 
may refer to persons or things. 

Which pupil; Which pencil; What lesson; What captain 

Which is selective. What is more general. 

Written Lesson. — W f rite sentences containing each of 
the forms of the interrogative pronouns and interrogative 
adjectives. 

i. who 4. which (pronoun) 

2. whose 5. what (pronoun) 

3. whom 6. which (adjective) 

7. what (adjective) 

Teaching Direction. — The only troublesome usage in connec- 
tion with these words concerns who and whom. Since the same 
problem has to be faced in the use of the relative pronouns who and 
whom, the drill exercise on the words is deferred until the lesson 
on relative pronouns is taught. However, an oral drill upon the 
interrogative who and whom may well be given here. 

Some cultured people decline to insist upon the accurate use of 
whom in informal oral speech. In time the word who may 
come to be recognized as the only form for both nominative and ob- 
jective use, in both colloquial and literary constructions. But at 
present it seems best to teach both forms, and to insist upon the 
correct use of whom in all formal writing, at least. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS 61 

LESSON 11 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

These same pronouns, who, which, and what, have another 
use besides that of asking questions. Notice these sentences. 
i. The soldiers who are drilling there are marines. 

2. We brought the tools which you want. 

3. We knew what you would want. 

The word that is also used in the same way. 

4. The men that you see there are marines. 

The case forms of who may be used thus also. 

5. The men whom you see there are marines. 

6. The men whose guns are stacked by the tents are marines. 

Observe in the diagrams what each of these words does 
for the sentence in which it occurs. 

I# The soldiers | are <— marines 
I who I are drilling there 

2. We brought — ■> the book 



you I want — > which | 

you would want — > what 

3. We 1 knew/ 1 |_ 

4. The men | are < — marines 
you I see — > that | 

there | 

5 # The men | are < — marines 

you see — > whom | 

I there 

6 # The men are ^— marines 



guns are stacked by the tents 
whose I 



62 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

In each of the six examples the word we are observing 
connects an adjective clause, of which it is a part, with its 
own antecedent. Such words are called relative (or conjunc- 
tive) pronouns. As conjunctions, they show the relation of 
the clause modifier to the antecedent of the pronoun; as 
pronouns, they have some place (subject, object of a verb, 
adjective modifier, or object of a preposition) in the subordi- 
nate clause. 

They do not have forms for person, number, or gender; 
and only the word who has case forms. There is, then, no 
agreement between the relative pronoun and its antecedent 
in person, number, gender, or case. The speaker or writer 
needs to take no notice of these matters except to get the 
correct form of who in the subordinate clause. 



LESSON 12 
THE USES OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

i. Who nearly always refers to persons. 

2. Which nearly always refers to animals or things. 

3. What always refers to animals or things. 

4. That refers to either persons or things. 

What does not have an expressed antecedent. It is 
equivalent to that which or the thing which. 

Whom is difficult to pronounce distinctly, and one has to 
be watchful of one's constructions to know whether to use 
who or whom. For these reasons many speakers use the 
word that, which has no change of form, and may be used 
for persons, animals, or things. Whom is still used correctly 
in all formal writing. Most writers prefer to use the ob- 
jective form whom to refer to persons, rather than the more 
general form that. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS 63 

As used with such or same sometimes fills the place of a 
relative pronoun. 

Examples. — We brought only such things as we had. 
Ours are almost the same as yours. 

These sentences are equivalent to the following sentences 
which contain the usual relative pronouns. 

We brought only those things which we had. 
Ours are almost the same that yours are. 

Diagram the following sentences in such a way as to 
show clearly the double function, as conjunction and pro- 
noun , of the relative pronoun in each. 

1. All the wealth that he had ran in his veins. 

2. I repeated the verse which I had formerly applied to him. 

3. We admire those by whom great enterprises are undertaken. 

4. You must admire a man whose life is balanced. 

5. These are the girls who dramatized "The Pilgrim's Winter." 

6. Do you remember whom you have met before? 

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

Who and what are compounded with ever and soever, 
making the words whoever, whosoever, whomever, whomso- 
ever, whatever, and whatsoever. These words are used like 
the other relative pronouns, but one needs to be very care- 
ful to choose the correct form in such a sentence as: I will 
go with (whoever or whomever) is going my way. The rela- 
tive pronoun here follows the preposition. The objective 
form seems to be called for; but closer observation shows 
that the whole clause is the object of the preposition with, 
while whoever is the subject of the verb-phrase is going. 
Observe this sentence: I will go with whomever I like. Now, 
whomever is the object of like. 



64 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

LESSON 13 

RELATIVE CLAUSES, RESTRICTIVE AND 
NONRESTRICTIVE (DESCRIPTIVE) 

i. These waxwings are birds which usually winter in the 

mountains. 
2. These waxwings, which usually winter in the mountains, fed 

on our barberry bushes through the cold months. 

In the first sentence, the which clause restricts the general 
meaning of the word birds. In the second, the clause is 
descriptive, and merely adds a piece of interesting informa- 
tion in a parenthetical way. Like all parenthetical expres- 
sions, the descriptive clause is set off with commas, and 
may be omitted from the sentence without changing the 
meaning of the main statement. 

Insert commas wherever needed. 

i. The college which he chose was a well-known state university. 

2. The University of Illinois which maintains an efficient agri- 

cultural college appealed strongly to William's father. 

3. William's older sister whose interest is in art attends Smith 

College. 

4. That is the college which her mother preferred. 

5. Each one did whatever he could do best. 

6. My occupation which is a very pleasant one is repairing 

bicycles. 

7. My teacher who is very strict says that I am doing very 

well this year. 

8. Mr. Woodrow Wilson who was formerly a teacher was twice 

elected President. 

9. Do you know that Mr. Jackson who sells automobile supplies? 

Write six sentences. In the first three use restrictive 
clauses; in the last three use nonrestrictive. Be sure to 
punctuate each correctly. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS 65 

LESSON 14 

PRACTICE IN THE USE OF WHO AND WHOM, 
INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE 

I. Choose the correct form in each of these sentences and 

give the reason for your choice. 

1. (Who, whom) have you met? 

2. (Who, whom) was the gift intended for? 

3. I will call (whoever, whomever) you want. 

4. The books would be presented to (whosoever, whomso- 

ever) would read them. 

5. For (who, whom) were these shoes made? 

6. Do you know the lady (who, whom) the flowers were 

sent to? 

7. (Who, whom) shall I send, if not thee? 

8. (Who, whom) are you thinking about? 

9. (Who, whom) do you have in mind? 
10. (Who, whom) will do the work? 

II. Construct the following sentences: 

1. A sentence containing the interrogative pronoun who. 

2. A sentence containing the interrogative pronoun whom 

as object of the verb. 

3. A sentence containing the interrogative pronoun whom 

as object of a preposition. 

4. A sentence containing the relative pronoun who. 

5. A sentence containing the relative pronoun whom as 

object of a verb. 

6. A sentence containing the relative pronoun whom as 

object of a preposition. 

7. A sentence containing the relative pronoun whoever. 

8. A sentence containing the relative pronoun whomever. 

9. A sentence containing the relative pronoun whosoever. 
10. A sentence containing the relative pronoun whom- 
soever. 



66 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

THE POSITION OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE 

You will notice that the relative pronoun should be as 
near as possible to its antecedent. If, in constructing your 
sentences, the relative clause is wrongly placed, your sen- 
tences will be vague or awkward. 

Example. — Sir Walter Scott was visited at his home in 
Scotland by Washington Irving, the American writer, which is 
called Abbotsford. 

What is called Abbotsford? Scott's home. 
The sentence arranged so as to make that point clear 
reads as follows: 

Washington Irving, the American writer, while in Scotland, 
visited Sir Walter Scott at his home, which is called Abbotsford. 



LESSON 15 

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS AND 
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES 



This is our new school building. 

That is the old. 

This building is our new school. 

That building is the old. 

These are the books we have bought. 

Those are the library books for this room. 

These books are very interesting. 

Those books are our choice. 



Demonstrate means to point out. — This and that, and 
their plural forms, these and those, are demonstrative words. 
When they are used with the nouns which they point out, 
they are called demonstrative adjectives. If the noun is 
omitted, and the word stands alone in the place of the 
noun, it is a pronoun, and is called a demonstrative pronoun. 



INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 67 

Usage. — This and its plural, these, are used to point 
out objects relatively near at hand. That and its plural, 
those, point out objects relatively far away. 

This apple, these apples; that tree, those trees. 

That and those may be used merely to call to mind nouns 
which have been used in an earlier part of the sentence. 

The length of a straight line between two points is less than 
that (length) of any curved line. 

The mountains of Colorado are higher than those (mountains) 
of the Eastern States. 

You see that the demonstrative pronoun makes it un- 
necessary to repeat the noun itself. 



LESSON 16 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 

There are in common use five personal pronouns, four 
relative, three interrogative, and two demonstrative. Be- 
sides these, there are about forty words having the nature 
in part of pronouns, adjectives, and nouns. They are for 
convenience called indefinite pronouns. They are, 

each, either, neither, some, any, many, few, all, both, one, none, 
aught, naught, someone, something, somebody, anyone, anything, 
anybody, everyone, everything, everybody, nothing, nobody, some- 
what, such, other, each other, one another, same, several, and 
similar words. 

Usage. — 1. Pronouns do not take the 's to show pos- 
session, except a few of these indefinite pronouns which are 
like nouns in some of their uses. We write it, its, but one's, 
another's, everybody's, nobody's, everybody else's, etc. 



68 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

Notice that the preferred literary form is everybody else's, 
and not everybody's else. 

2. Agreement of certain Indefinite Pronouns with the 
verb. 

None takes a singular or plural verb according to its 
meaning. 

None are (plural) to be admitted unless they bring tickets. 
None is (singular) responsible except him. 

All is treated in the same way as none. 

All (everything) was ready for the game to begin. 
All (all the people) were ready for the game to begin. 

Choose the correct verb forms in the following sentences. 

i. Each {were, was) friendly to the other. 

2. Everybody {has, have) chosen his part. 

3. By that time all {were, was) memorizing their lines. 

4. All {has, have) been arranged for the track meet. 

5. None {is, are) so blind as he who will not see. 

6. None {is, are) so blind as they who will not see. 



LESSON 17 

ADJECTIVES 

Adjectives are words which modify nouns and pronouns. 
It is only as predicate adjectives that they modify pronouns. 
The adjective sweet in the sentence below names a quality 
of the subject. 

It is <— sweet 

Some adjectives merely point out a particular thing. Others 
name a quality belonging to some noun. 

These pencils are all yellow. 

Yellow pencils are no better than black. 



ADJECTIVES 69 

As there is in English no very sharp distinction between 
the parts of speech, we often see one part of speech take the 
place of another. Black is used there as if it were a noun. 

USES OF ADJECTIVES 

1. An adjective is sometimes used without its noun. See 
the word black on page 68. 

2. Demonstrative pronouns are frequently used with 
nouns. They are then called demonstrative adjectives. 

Pronoun: This is mine. 
Adjective: This pen is mine. 

3. The possessive forms of nouns and pronouns are used 
with nouns as if they were adjectives. 

My fountain pen flows too freely. 
His bicycle is in the repair shop. 
Charles's bicycle is in the repair shop. 

4. Nouns are sometimes used as adjectives. 

The soldier dropped his cartridge belt. 
Book-reviews are published in this magazine. 

5. The interrogative pronouns which and what are regu- 
larly used as interrogative adjectives also. 

Pronoun: Which is your coat? 
Adjective: Which coat is yours? 
Pronoun: What have you in your pocket? 

6. Two of the relative pronouns, together with their 
compounds with ever, are used as relative (conjunctive) 
adjectives. 

You understand what lesson was assigned. 

Do you remember which lesson was assigned for to-morrow? 

I will try whichever road you suggest. 

I will take whatever device seems most promising of success. 



70 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

7. Many of the indefinite pronouns are also used as 
indefinite adjectives. 

Teaching Directions. — The usual classification of adjectives into 
descriptive, limiting, articles, and numerals, seems to serve no 
useful purpose. Indeed, the only excuse for including the preceding 
seven observations about adjectives is the belief that the knowledge 
of those facts will give confidence to a speaker or writer when, in the 
midst of a sentence, he suddenly becomes aware of a form of expres- 
sion that seems somewhat unusual. The same explanation apphes 
to much of the information given in the lessons on pronouns. 

The important thing to know about adjectives is comparison; 
for it is upon this that many writers and speakers stumble. 

THE INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES — COMPARISON 

In some languages, adjectives have distinct forms to 
indicate number, gender, and case. English adjectives 
have no such inflections, but most of them do have three 
forms, to indicate the three degrees: Positive, Comparative, 
and Superlative. 

1. Words of one syllable usually form these degrees by 
adding -er and -est to the simple form. 

cold colder coldest 

2. Words of more than two syllables usually prefix the 
adverbs more and most to the simple form, or less and least. 

beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful 
beautiful, less beautiful, least beautiful 

3. Words of two syllables may be compared usually by 
either method. 

intense, more intense, most intense 
intense, intenser, intensest 
feeble, more feeble, most feeble 
feeble, feebler, feeblest 



ADJECTIVES 



71 



4. Some adjectives of two syllables, however, sound 
awkward with the -er and -est endings. The words ending 
in -Jul are typical of the kind. This would sound odd: 

joyful joyfuller joyfulest 

5. A few adjectives are compared irregularly. 



Positive 


Comparative 


Superlative 


near 


nearer 


nearest, next 


far 


farther, further 


farthest, furthest 


much, many 


more 


most 


bad, ill 


worse 


worst 


good, well 


better 


best 


little 


less 


least 



6. A few adjectives, like square, round, perfect, straight, 
complete, white, and black could not logically be compared. 
If a thing is round, another cannot be rounder. If some- 
thing is perfect, something else cannot be most perfect. 
But in actual practice we do compare these words. When 
we say, This line is straighter than that; and the last one 
is straightest of all, we mean merely that the second more 
nearly approaches absolute straightness, and the third 
most nearly approaches it. 

7. A few of these words, however, are not compared in 
actual speaking. We do not say most vertical, more equal, 
more infinite, more daily, etc. 

Written Exercise. — Write out the three forms of each 
of these adjectives. 



1. gentle 

2. happy 

3. blue 

4. skillful 

5. contemptible 

6. white 

7. fair 



8. old 

9. rude 

10. excellent 
n. young 

12. round 

13. gorgeous 

14. gracious 



15. rich 

16. perfect 

17. splendid 

18. dangerous 

19. great 

20. true 



72 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

LESSON 18 

ADVERBS 

In their uses, adverbs are like adjectives. They are modi- 
fying words; but they modify, not nouns (as adjectives do), 
but verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and, once in a long 
while, even prepositions. 

i. He ran rapidly at first. 

2. The ice was unusually smooth that winter. 

3. The wheels revolved very swiftly. 

4. That is a result far beyond our expectations. 

The first adverb modifies a verb, the second an adjective, 
the third an adverb, and the fourth a preposition. 

THE FUNCTION OF ADVERBS 

Adverbs usually indicate the place, the time, the cause, 
or the manner of an action. They also show direction, con- 
dition, measure of distance, degree, etc. 

OBSERVATIONS ABOUT ADVERBS 

1. Some words are used, without change, as either adjec- 
tives or adverbs. What the word is depends upon its use; 
that is, upon the word which it modifies. 

Adjective: I assure you these are all fast colors. 
Adverb: He ran fast. 

2. Quite a number of adverbs are formed by adding -ly 
to the adjective. 

slow, slowly fresh, freshly 

rapid, rapidly beautiful, beautifully 

brief, briefly bright, brightly 



PUNCTUATION 73 

3. A few nouns are used like adverbs. 

He walked a mile (measure of distance). 
The address was an hour long. 

4. Many words are either adverbs or prepositions, de- 
pending upon their use in the sentence. 

Adverb: Lift up your heads. 
Preposition: The kitten ran up the steps. 
Adverb: Then they looked around. 
Preposition: We looked around the house. 

If the word is followed by a noun object, it is a prepo- 
sition. If it merely gives direction, it is an adverb. 

Comparison. — Adverbs are compared by using the ad- 
verbs of degree, more and most, less and least. Of course, 
many adverbs are not compared at all. The adverbs that 
indicate manner and degree are the principal adverbs that 
are compared. 

Write out the three degrees for the following adverbs: 



1. freshly 


8. kindly 


14. brightly 


2. rapidly 


9. cheerfully 


15. distantly 


3. sluggishly 


10. threateningly 


16. carefully 


4. distinctly 


n. slowly 


17. fearfully 


5. audibly 


12. briefly 


18. fearlessly 


6. carelessly 


13. thoroughly 


19. timidly 


7. willingly 


LESSON 19 
PUNCTUATION 


20. swiftly 



1. Any series of words, phrases, or clauses (three or more) 
should be separated by the use of commas. Notice that 
a comma is used between the last two, even when they 



74 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

are separated by such conjunctions as and, or or. This 
custom has 'been noted briefly in a previous lesson. 

Such a series of words may be any part of a sentence, 
such as a compound subject, predicate, or object, or a series 
of adjectives, adverbs, or adjective or adverbial phrases. 

My books, papers, and pencils have disappeared. 

He would neither sell, trade, nor give to his partners his share 

of the mine. 
He sold his potatoes, beans, barley, and oats at a good price. 
Outdoor sports are popular in the spring, in the summer, and in 

the autumn. 

2. Two adjectives modifying the same noun are not sepa- 
rated by a comma unless they are somewhat alike in mean- 
ing. We write a big red apple without a comma. But a 
cold, snowy day requires a comma. 

3. Do not use a comma at the beginning of a series. 

Wrong: I am studying, music, painting, and dancing outside of 
school. 

Punctuate the following sentences. 

1. Apples peaches and apricots are all fall fruits. 

2. She answered in a cool collected manner. 

3. Stevenson Marryat Connolly and Conrad write interesting 

sea-stories. 

4. I like neither rice potatoes nor macaroni. 

5. The cloud shadow was coming on swiftly silently. 

6. These stories were printed first in the Youth's Companion 

in Saint Nicholas and in the American Boy. 

7. There is no excuse for his careless speech for his bad manners 

nor for his repeated tardiness. 

8. We came through darkness rain and mud. 

9. An immense black cloud rolled up in the west. 
10. Warm sluggish currents of air floated by. 

Note. — You will observe that there is a distinct, natural pause 
between the two adjectives that are properly separated by a comma, 
and no pause otherwise. 



VERBS 75 

LESSON 20 
VERBS 

Teaching Direction. — As has been our custom with other parts 
of speech, we are eliminating every phase of the grammar of verbs 
that does not direct pupils in forming sentences, or in judging their 
own sentences after they are made. We shall have to call attention 
to transitive and intransitive verbs, because of the confusion likely 
to occur in using nominative and objective forms of the pronouns 
after the verbs. This also makes a note on voice necessary. Mode 
is not mentioned. The few uses of the subjunctive in conditional 
clauses will be shown as an exercise. Person and number will be 
taught only with the few verb forms which require agreement of verb 
and subject in person, and with the -s forms of the third person 
singular verbs. Keep to the useful and the simple. 

DEVELOPMENT 

The Latin language was able in most cases to make the 
statement, or do the asking, in a sentence with but one 
word for the predicate verb. This was possible because the 
language had many forms for a single verb. A mo, amas, I 
amat, amamus, amatis, amant, were the six forms the Latins 
used to say, / love, you love, he loves, we love, you love, they 
love. Observe that English has only two forms, love and 
loves, to serve in all the places where Latin used six. The 
Latin word equito, meaning ride, has, in all, 120 forms. The 
English word ride has only five forms — ride, rides, riding, 
rode, ridden. But we express every shade of meaning that 
the Latins expressed. We do so by using groups of words 
where the simple word would not express the exact mean- 
ing we desire. 

Examples: 

1. I read the book last year, (predicate verb one word). 

2. I have read the book. (Predicate verb two words.) 



76 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

3. I have been reading the book to-day. (Predicate verb three 

words.) 

4. I should have been reading the book to-day. (Predicate verb 

four words.) 

Groups of words (two or more) used to make a single 
predication are called verb phrases. In analyzing, or parsing, 
a verb phrase should be regarded as a single verb. The in- 
dividual words in the group should not be parsed or analyzed. 

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 

1. Harry threw — > the ball. 

2. It struck — > the brick wall. 

3. It bounced eight feet. 

4. This boy is < — Harry. 

The verbs threw and struck show action directed away 
from the subject of the sentence toward some other noun 
or pronoun object. Verbs which act in this way are called 
transitive verbs. If a transitive predicate verb has a pro- 
noun complement, the pronoun must be in the objective 
form. 

The word bounced does not direct the action toward any- 
thing. The word is indicates that the subject and the 
predicate complement are the same person or thing. Such 
verbs are called intransitive. All verbs which are not transi- 
tive are intransitive. 

Teaching Direction. — The only use for the distinction between 
transitive and intransitive verbs is to determine whether to follow 
them with a nominative or objective pronoun. For this reason we 
omit any mention of copulative, auxiliary, or other verb classifica- 
tions. We are obliged to retain voice because of the rhetorical 
effect in composition. 

Exercise. — Select either a nominative or objective pro- 
noun form to complete each of these sentences. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS 77 

1. He does not know the road. I will direct (he, him). 

2. The papers are scattered. Will you please bind (they, them)? 

3. I do not know Mrs. Carey. Is that (she, her)? 

4. Mother called (we, us). 

5. This is (/, me) at the door. 

6. Mr. Harper brought (we, us) home in his big car. 

7. If that is (she, her), tell (she, her) to come in. 

8. If Aunt Rose should send (he, him), we should like it. 

9. Your gloves are gray, aren't they? Are these (they, them)? 
10. Yes. I bought (they, them) only last week. 

Diagrams to show the relation of the predicate verbs and 
their complements. 

* (you) I tell — -> her to come in 

if 
that is <r— she 

In a way similar to that shown above, diagram sentences 
6, 8, and 10. 

Teaching Direction. — Find out which of your pupils have 
difficulty with the pronoun forms, and then continue for weeks, if 
necessary, to require them to choose between the nominative and 
objective forms, until they can do so without hesitation. The author 
could have supplied a list of a hundred such sentences here, but there 
is no reason for drilling a whole class upon a possible hundred chances 
of making mistakes, when the obvious thing to do is to correct day 
after day the few who make mistakes, and to confine the drill to the 
mistakes these few pupils actually make. 



LESSON 21 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS 

Some languages have four or five conjugations (sets of 
verb forms) . English has but two, and they are very simple. 
All of the verbs that have come into the language within 



78 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

recent times (within four or five hundred years) add -d 
or -ed to a common form to indicate past time: 

print, printed; paint, painted; telephone, telephoned. 

Most of the very old, simple verbs change the main vowel 
sound to form the past tense and past participle: 

drink, drank, drunk; ride, rode, ridden; 
sing, sang, sung; buy, bought, bought. 

The -ed verbs, because they require the help of an addi- 
tional syllable, are sometimes called the weak verbs. 1 Be- 
cause the other verbs make the changes within themselves, 
without the help of an added syllable, they are called the 
strong verbs. 2 

Principal Parts. — The weak verbs have only four different 
forms: call, calls, calling, called. The strong verbs have 
usually five forms, like: ring, rings, ringing, rang, rung. 
But observe: bring, brings, bringing, brought. In this word 
the past tense and past participle are the same: I brought; 
I have brought. 

Three of these forms are called the principal parts. 

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle 
ring rang rung 

bring brought brought 

call called called 

carve carved carved 

Knowing these three forms of any verb, one can use a 
verb, or make a verb phrase, to express any kind of idea 
that the verb is capable of expressing. The other two 
forms differ only by the addition of an -5 or an -ing to the 
present tense form. 

1 They are also called regular verbs. 

2 They are also called irregular verbs. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS 79 

Only a few verbs are troublesome to speakers of the 
English language. Those which many children stumble 
over are listed below. You may have trouble with only two 
or three out of the whole list; or there may be still others 
which trouble you. If there are, your teachers and school- 
mates have probably noticed them, and will call your at- 
tention to your mistakes and help you to correct them. 

Check off from this list the verbs which trouble you. 
Add to your troublesome list others which you know you 
misuse, and then practise with the troublesome forms in 
oral and written sentences, over and over, till the correct 
form begins to look right and sound right to you. 

Example. — Suppose one of your troubles is saying: / 
seen, and i" have saw. The principal parts of see are : present 
tense see; past tense saw; past participle seen. 

Practise on such sentences as these: 

I saw the notice in the paper. 

I have seen that more than once. 

I had seen that tree before. 

They saw a bear and an antelope. 

You saw it. It saw us. It had seen us. 

She saw it. She has seen us. He has seen us. 

Remember, it is not knowing what is right that will help 
you; it is practice, till the correct form looks right and 
sounds right to you. 

A LIST OF TROUBLESOME VERBS 

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle 
beat beat beaten 

begin began begun 

breaks broke broken 

bring brought brought 



8o 



THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 



burst 


burst 


burst 


catch 


caught 


caught 


climb 


climbed 


climbed 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 


do 


did 


done 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


flee 


fled 


fled 


flow 


flowed 


flowed 


fly 


flew 


flown 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


give 


gave 


given 


get 


got 


got 


go 


went 


gone 


grow 


grew 


grown 


know 


knew 


known 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lie (to recline) 


lay 


lain 


prove 


proved 


proved 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


ring 


rang 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


run 


ran 


run 


see 


saw 


seen 


set 


set 


set 


sit 


sat 


sat 


spring 


sprang 


sprung 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


swim 


swam 


swum 


swing 


swung 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 


teach 


taught 


taught 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 


write 


wrote 


written 



Exercise. — Use the correct form of the verb in each of 
these sentences. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS 81 

i. Our team was {beat, beaten) in the game Saturday. 

2. The bleachers were full five minutes after the game had 

(began, begun). 

3. Fanny has (broke, busted, broken) one of her hand-painted 

china plates. 

4. Ned has (come in, came in) late three days this week. 

5. I (come, came) by your house Thursday morning, to go to 

school with you. 

6. Caroline could never have (done, did) that piece of work 

without Irene's helping her. 

7. I (done, have did, have done) all my work alone this week. 

8. The canaries have (drank, drunk) all the water from their cup. 

9. I have never (eat, ate, eaten) such good pears before. , 

10. That little stream has (flowed, flown) along beside the road 

there for three years. 

11. The ice on our skating-pond has already (freezed, froze, 

frozen) three inches thick. 

12. How much had you already (gave, given)? 

13. Have you (got, gotten) your lessons ready for to-morrow? 

14. The other girls had already (went, gone) home before we 

came in. 

15. The bell has (rang, rung). 

16. Have you ever (seen, saw) a butterfly like this one? 

17. The acrobat (swung, swang) up and caught the trapeze bar. 

18. Fred (seen, saw) him do it. 

19. You could not have (saw, seen) him from where you sat. 

20. Foster has (wrote, written) all of these sentences correctly. 

21. I (laid, lay) the books on your desk yesterday. 

22. I (laid, lay) on the couch for a brief rest. 

23. I have (laid, lain) the sticks in a straight row. 

24. I have (laid, lain) in bed until eight every day this week. 

25. I (set, sat) the vase on your table before you came in. 

26. I (set, sat) in your room half an hour waiting for you to come. 

27. I have (set, sat) here waiting for an hour. 

28. I have (set, sat) the chairs around the table. 

Teaching Direction. — All good teachers soon learn the indi- 
vidual errors of each pupil. No one pupil misuses many verbs. 
Find out what the troublesome verbs are, and then give individual 



82 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

drills until each pupil corrects his own habits. Keep a list for each 
pupil, and as he ceases to misuse one of his troublesome verbs, 
scratch it of his list. 

It is not advisable to stop here and drill on these troublesome 
verbs until each pupil has mastered the use of all of his list. It 
seems best to take only time enough to become aware of each indi- 
vidual pupiVs troublesome verbs, and then continue to work over 
them while other lessons are in progress until they are no longer 
troublesome. 

The twenty-eight sentences in this exercise are shown merely as ex- 
amples of what may be done, and not as a complete drill upon the 
troublesome verbs. The list may easily be extended. 



LESSON 22 
THE TENSE OF VERBS 

English verbs have only two distinct forms to indicate 
the time of an action. There is a form for present tense 
(present time) and one for past tense (past time) : see, saw; 
lend, lent; break, broke; mend, mended. All other time rela- 
tions are expressed in verb phrases like will send, should 
have sent, had sent, shall have sent, am sending, had been 
sending, and other similar groups of words. 

The principal time relations which may be expressed in 
English by making use of verb forms or verb phrases are 
the following: 

Weak Verb Strong Verb 

i. Present Tense I print I write 

2. Imperfect I have printed I have written 

3. Past I printed I wrote 

4. Past Perfect I had printed I had written 

5. Future I shall print I shall write 

6. Future Perfect I shall have printed I shall have written 

In the present tense one must say, He prints; She prints, 
adding an 5 when the subject is third person singular. The 



THE TENSE OF VERBS 83 

imperfect tense requires has for the third person singular, 
He has printed; She has written. 

Progressive action can be shown with each of the six 
tenses by using the present participle in -ing. 

1. I am printing. 4. I had been printing. 

2. I have been printing. 5. / shall be printing. 

3. / was printing. 6. / shall have been printing. 



In a clause which expresses a condition contrary to fact 
we regularly say, If I were writing, if he were writing, I 
wish I were, instead of the more common forms, I was, he 
was, she was, it was. 

Any one of the helping verbs may, can, must, might, 
could, would, or should may be used as a part of a verb 
phrase, to indicate the shade of meaning one wishes to put 
into a sentence. For example, I might have written, I could 
have written, I can write, I may be writing. 

The order and composition of a verb phrase may be 
changed in such a way as to make the subject the receiver 
of the act instead of the doer of the act. 

1. Subject active: He printed the tickets. 

2. Subject passive (not active) : The tickets were printed by him. 

Observe that the object, tickets, in the first sentence 
became the subject in the second. The subject of the 
first sentence was put into the objective case, and made 
the object of a preposition, in the second sentence. You 
will notice that the verb print is a transitive verb, but that 
it takes an object only when the subject is active. 

Notice these three sentences: 

1. Ralph's father gave him a bicycle for his birthday. 

2. A bicycle was given him for his birthday. 

3. He was given a bicycle for his birthday. 



84 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

In the third sentence the word bicycle, which should have 
become the subject of the passive construction, was kept 
as a kind of object, J?his retained object is not the customary 
usage, and is avoided by careful writers. 

The effect of changing a sentence to the passive construc- 
tion is to throw the emphasis upon the receiver of the act 
rather than upon the doer. If you wish to speak vividly 
and directly, use the active constructions largely. Turn to 
the passive only when it expresses an idea just as you 
want it. 

Teaching Direction. — Have your pupils write out certain verbs, 
like be, find, break, have, paint, sew, and telephone, in full 
for given tenses. The purpose of such a set of exercises is not 
that the pupils shall memorize any verb in all its modes, tenses, 
voices, persons, and number, but that they may become aware of 
the machinery we regularly employ to express certain shades of 
meaning. 

Have them form verb phrases in some of the tenses with can, 
should, might, etc. 

You have observed that nothing is made of person and number 
of verbs. There is no agreement in person and number between 
a verb and its subject except in the case of the -s forms of verbs 
in the third person and singular number, and the forms of the verb 
be, am, is, was, were. These matters are so slight that it seems 
better to teach them to one who is learning the language as a matter 
of memory rather than to teach an elaborate agreement which does 
not exist. The same may be said about mode. We make no mis- 
takes in the use of mode. The forms are the same for all, except 
the vestige of a subjunctive, which may be taught by a few concrete 
examples. 

We do not have any verb forms for the passive voice construc- 
tions. All English verbs are active. We must resort to verb phrases 
to get the effect of passive constructions. While the passive verb 
phrase is not used as frequently as the active, you must not let 
your pupils get the idea that it is not correct or that it is useless. 
We often want the emphasis drawn away from the subject and 
thrown upon the object. We often wish to express ourselves in 



THE PARTICIPLE 85 

speech and writing in the less direct manner, which only the 
passive construction makes possible. The passive form may also 
be of distinct aid in securing variety in sentence structure. 



LESSON 23 
VERBALS — THE PARTICIPLE 

Teaching Direction. — The author suggests that Lessons 23, 24, 
and 25 be omitted when the class is one that is taking systematic 
grammar for the first time. They are useful lessons for later refer- 
ence, and can be taught with profit to pupils who have already had 
some study of grammar. 

Very few mistakes are made in speaking and writing verbals. 
Students learn to avoid these possible errors, not by learning the 
grammar of verbals, but by becoming so accustomed to the idiom 
that only the correct form sounds well. A pupil sometimes desires 
this information about these noun and adjective forms of the verb, 
because he often becomes conscious that he is using words in odd 
ways, which apparently do not parse. He wonders whether these 
usages are correct. We are giving this information so that the speaker 
may be able to test his own speech and writing. Do not insist 
upon your pupils understanding all of this at once. Keep At for 
reference. 

DEVELOPMENT 

Four forms of the verb are unable, standing alone, to 
make a statement or ask a question. They do not make 
predications. These are the two participles and the two 
infinitives. 

The two participles — the present {singing, driving, 
exciting, drilling) and the past {sung, driven, excited, drilled) 
are used mainly as adjective modifiers, or as parts of verb 
phrases. 

Participles used- as adjective modifiers: 



86 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

i. Singing birds are welcome everywhere. 

2. Our driving horses are in the pasture to-day. 

3. We are having an exciting time. 

4. The boys drilling there are scouts. 

5. Well-drilled scouts march in perfect time. 

6. Horses too hard driven soon become tired. 

Participles used as parts of verb phrases: 

1. The birds are singing. 

2. We have been driving our new car. 

3. The scouts have been drilling an hour. 

4. You have excited my curiosity. 

5. They should have drilled on the lawn. 

Observe these four sentences: 

1. The birds are brown. 

2. The birds are singing. 

1. The scouts are young. 

2. The scouts are trained. 

In the sentences numbered 1, an adjective is used to com- 
plete the predicate. In those numbered 2, a present or past 
participle is used. This shows that the predicate participle 
is often an adjective, in a way modifying the subject. In 
such a sentence as, You might have said that yesterday, the 
word said has no adjective force. Since the distinction be- 
tween the two uses is very vague in some cases, it seems best, 
in analyzing sentences, not to separate the verb phrase when 
one part of it is a present or past participle. No purpose is 
served by making such a separation. 

ERRORS IN THE USE OF PARTICIPLES — THE 
DANGLING PARTICIPLE 

1. Coming to school this morning, we waded through the mud. 

2. While speaking to one of the boys, the fish slipped off my hook. 

The participle coming in the first sentence modifies we. 
In the second sentence speaking does not modify fish. If 



THE ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION 87 

the sentence had been written, While I was speaking to one 
of the boys, the fish slipped of my hook, the participle would 
have been a proper part of a verb phrase; but as it is used 
in the second sentence, it dangles about without modifying 
anything. This bad construction is called the dangling 
participle. 

THE ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION 

1. Having arrived late, the play was already half finished. 

2. The day being cloudy, we postponed our camping excursion. 

3. The supper now being over, the strangers asked to be shown 

their places of rest. 

4. It being now twilight, you might have seen a number of stars 

tumble out of their places. 

The first of these sentences contains the bad dangling 
participle, which modifies nothing and gives a wrong im- 
pression. It seems to say that the play arrived late. 

Each of the second, third, and fourth sentences contains an 
absolute construction of the participle. While the participial 
phrase modifies nothing, it is not misleading. It usually gives 
a reason for something which is to follow in the main clause. 

Punctuation. — The absolute construction of the parti- 
cipial phrase is always set off by a comma, or by two commas 
if it occurs within the sentence, instead of at the beginning. 

Correct the following sentences and punctuate the cor- 
rected sentences properly. 

1. Having eaten our lunch the old horse slowly drew our camp 

wagon up the hill. 

2. While finishing a piece of tatting the elephants passed us. 

3. When eating a rough-looking native of that section shuffled 

into our camp. 

4. When only seven years old her father and mother died and 

left her an orphan, 



88 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES CONTAINING PARTICIPLES 

i. The swiftly moving automobile ran into the curb. 
2. The automobile, moving swiftly, ran into the curb. 

automobile ran 



| the | into the curb 

moving {participle) 



I swiftly {adverb) 

Very often the order of the words makes no difference 
in the grammatical relations of the parts of the sentence. 

To analyze a sentence containing a participial phrase which 
is easily recognized as a contraction of a longer clause, 
it is usually best to enlarge the phrase into a complete clause. 

i. While learning to use roller-skates, I got many hard falls. 
2. While I was learning to use roller-skates, I got many hard 
falls. 



I 


got — > falls 






| many 
hard 


I 


was learning 


Obj. 
— > (to use — > roller-skates) 




| while: 





Punctuation. — Participial modifiers — words, phrases, or 
contracted clauses — are set off by commas only when they 
are semiparenthetical, as in the second sentence above. 

Punctuate the following sentences correctly and then 
either analyze orally or diagram them: 

i. I had been hurrying through my work. 

2. Hurrying through my work I did not do it very well. 

3. While coming to this place they passed through the Rocky 

Mountain region. 

4. The canning process is fairly simple. 

5. Having finished our work we had a short time for play. 



VERBALS AND INFINITIVES 89 

LESSON 24 

VERBALS — THE INFINITIVE WITH TO 

The infinitive with to is usually a noun in a sentence, 
and as such it may be used in any way that a noun may. 
The common uses are: 

1. As subject: To be useful is my aim. 

2. As predicate noun: My aim is to be useful. 



The real noun usefulness could be substituted in either 
sentence for the infinitive and its accompanying adjective 
useful. 

3. As object: I have chosen to be useful. 

4. As object of a preposition: He does nothing except play. He 

asked nothing but to receive justice. 

5. As an appositive: Her constant wish, to be useful, was shown 

in everything she did. 

Besides these five regular noun-uses, the infinitive with 
to has four other fairly common uses: 

1. To take the place of a verb in a condensed clause: 

he asked — > that I should wait 
he asked — » me to wait 

2. As an adjective modifier: Houses to rent are scarce. 

3. To serve as a predicate adjective: My work is to begin (is be- 

ginning) at seven. 

4. As an adverb: I came here to work. 

To work names the purpose of my coming: I came here 
for the purpose of working. One of the functions of adverbs 
is to indicate purpose. But the to of the infinitive once 
served as a real preposition. For this reason some gram- 



go THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

marians call to work a prepositional adverbial phrase, having 
work as the object of the preposition to. 
Some infinitives are written without the to. 

i. You cannot make him work. 
2. I heard her call. 

Point out the infinitives in these sentences, and give the 
syntax (function in the sentence) of each. 

i. I expect to enjoy the play. 

2. Do you expect your mother to enjoy the play? 

3. We have potatoes to seJl this week. 

4. She does nothing but chatter. 

5. To be happy is to make friends. 

6. Do not try to be too gay. 

7. The captain ordered the company to halt. 

8. They tried to keep the step. 

9. He had but one hobby — to drill his men perfectly. 

10. Please, auntie, make Maude help me. 

11. When is this excitement to end? 

12. I thought your plan to be a good one. 

DIAGRAMS 

Adjective Object of 

Infinitive complement Infinitive infinitive 

is < — to make friends, 

(predicate verb) (predicate noun) 



To be happy 

(subject) 



Subject Predicate verb Object 
She does — ■> nothing 



Preposition (infinitive without to) 
but chatter 



Subject of infinitive Infinitive 
Subject Predicate verb company to halt 
captain | ordered — > (object) 

Diagram the sentences numbered 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12. 



THE GERUND 91 

LESSON 25 
VERBALS— THE GERUND 

Some nouns end in -ing and have no verbal nature at 
all, — learning, reading, etc., when used like the word geogra- 
phy merely as names. 

But there is a group of -ing words that are part verb and 
part noun. They are more like verbs than nouns in their 
uses. These are gerunds. They act like the infinitive with 
to, and for that reason are sometimes called infinitives in 
-ing. Frequently you can use either the gerund or the 
infinitive in a given sentence. 

Infinitive: To prepare for their guests required only a few minutes. 
Gerund: Preparing for their guests required only a few minutes. 

The gerund may be used like a noun, as subject, predicate 
noun, object, object of a preposition, or as an appositive. 

1. Subject: Actually seeing the demonstration made me change 

my mind. 

2. Predicate Noun: His greatest fault is being sarcastic. 

3. Object: He practised mending china. 

4. Object of Preposition: He spends all his time in carefully 

mending broken china. 

5. Appositive: His occupation, mending china, is an interesting 

one. 

Gerunds are like verbs and nouns both. Like verbs they 
imply motion and take adverbial modifiers. (See sentences 
1 and 4.) They also take adjective complements (see sen- 
tence 2) like verbs, and object complements like verbs. (See 
sentences 1, 3, 4, and 5.) 



9 2 



THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 
DIAGRAMS 



Object of 
mind 



Gerund 
seeing 



Noun objective 
demonstration 



Infinitive \ m Y 

me | change — -> 



actually 



the 



made 
(subject) | (transitive verb predicate )- 



(object) 



Predicate Gerund from 

Subject intransitive intransitive verb 

verb being < — 

fault is <— 



adjective 
complement 
of gerund 
sarcastic 



|_his 
greatest 



Subject Transitive Predicate Gerund object of Noun object 
verb transitive verb of gerund 

3 # mending — > china 



Lie | practised 






Subject Predicate 


Object 


He spends 


— ► time 






1 l al1 






(his 




m 


ending-^ china 




I carefully ] broken 




in 




(appositive) 






mending — > china 


Subject 




occupation is 


^— one 


1 his 




| an 








interesting 



SHALL AND WILL 93 

Diagram the following sentences: 

1. You should not judge a man's actions without carefully con- 

sidering his motives. 

2. Carefully considering a man's motives should precede judging 

his actions. 

3. The engineers advocated constructing a lock canal across 

Panama. 

4. Actually constructing a sea-level canal was found to be too 

expensive. 

5. The greater expense of constructing a sea-level canal was 

prohibitive. 

LESSON 26 

SHALL AND WILL — SHOULD AND WOULD 

Teaching Direction. — In parts of the country the people, by 
habit, use shall and will and should and would according to the 
literary customs; but in the greater portions of the country these 
words are not so used. There are good reasons for the literary uses, 
but it seems much simpler merely to tell what those uses are, and to 
give practice in using the words in sentences, rather than to ask 
pupils to learn the reasons and apply these each time. Habits of 
using the words correctly will probably be much more effective than 
knowing a reason for the literary uses. 

A General Direction. — Get into the habit of saying / 
shall, we shall, I should, we should. Then, whether or not 
you remember the particular rules shown below for the use 
of these words with a pronoun in the first person, you will 
be right ninety-five times in a hundred. 

Particular Directions. — 1. When you mean mere future 
expectation or intention use shall with a subject pronoun 
in the first person, and will with the second or third person. 

I shall go You will go He will go 

We shall go She will go 

It will go 
They will go 



94 



THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 



2. When you mean to indicate any exercise of the will 
power, such as a promise, or determination, or the like, 
just reverse the order. Use will with the first person, and 
shall with the second, or third. 

I will go You shall go He shall go 

We will go She shall go 

It shall go 
They shall go 

These two statements are the fundamental ones. Be sure 
that you know them, and that you acquire the habit of using 
them. The three which follow are just the application of 
these two to particular kinds of sentences. 

Teaching Direction. — The three rules which follow are useful 
for reference, but young children should not be required to learn them. 
They are useful only to those who wish to be sure about the finer 
distinctions in writing and speaking. 

3. In object clauses of indirect discourse, use the form 
that would have been used in the original direct statement. 
These clauses occur after such verbs as say, declare, think, 
hope, fear, etc. 

Notice these sentences: 

I think I shall go. 

I had determined that I would go. 

In the first sentence, the indirect-discourse object-clause, 
I shall go, expresses simple future intention, and uses shall 
with the first person. 

In the second, the speaker originally said, "/ will go." 
This expresses determination, and so uses will with the first 
person. 

He promised that he would go. 
What he said was, "I will go." This is a promise. 
He thought he should probably be going next week. 



SHALL AND WILL 95 

The direct statement of this is: 
I shall probably be going next week. 

4. In all other subordinate clauses, always use shall to 
indicate simple future time, and will to indicate any act 
involving will power. 

If I should decide to go, I will send you word. 

We hardly knew whether we should expect you or not. 

5. In questions, always say, shall I, and shall we. 
When the subject is second or third person, use the form 

that you expect in the answer; 1 or 2 on page 94 will 
show what you might properly expect. 

Will you go with us next week? I will. 

The sentence asks for a promise, and gets it. (See 2.) 

Shall you be going away soon? I shall. 

This sentence merely asks for a statement of intention. 

(See 1.) 

Shall these children be required to write the lessons for to-mor- 
row? They shall. (See 2.) 

Will these children write to-morrow's lesson? I am sure 
they will. (See 1.) 

Should you like to go to the theatre with me Thursday eve- 
ning? I should like it very much. 

This is polite. / would like to go, would mean that you 
are compelling yourself (or willing) to like what you really 
do not care for. 

Oral Exercise. — Choose the preferred form (shall, will, 
should, or would) in these sentences, and refer to the rules 
given above (1, 2, 3, 4, or 5) to support your choice. 



96 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

Group I. (Make these sentences express simple future 
time, without any reference to the will of the speaker.) 

i . He fears that Alice not be able to come to the luncheon 

to-morrow. 

2. I come in now, or we all wait outside? 

3. How much coffee I order? 

4. The time come when you see this more clearly. 

5- you call again when my mother is at home, Mrs. Scott? 

6. I call again on Thursday? 

7- I have another letter from you before Christmas? 

8. He decline your offer, I am sure. 

9. you be at home to-day at about four o'clock? 

10. I go to the theatre this evening; you stay at home, 

I suppose. 

11. Mother was just inquiring when you come. 

12. you like to attend the concert this evening? 

13. If you had not caught me, I have fallen. 

14. If I try to swim, I am sure I drown. 

15. He thought you be hurt. 

16. I go to the theatre; you stay at home. 

Group II. (Make these sentences indicate determination, 
a promise, or some other exercise of the will of the speaker.) 
Use shall, will, should, or would. 

1. you buy your apples from me this winter? 

2. I go to the theatre; you stay at home. 

3. They provide for the lunch baskets whether they want 

to or not. 

4. you be here promptly at ten o'clock in the morning? 

5. They pay the penalty for their negligence. 

6. We not fail to keep our promise to you. 

7. You be there as you promised, I suppose. 

8. Edward be required to take part in the exercises? 

9. Mother was just inquiring when you come. 

10. He declared that Albert be required to do the work. 

11. Father asked me where I be at ten o'clock. 

12. — — you try, even if you were sure of success? 



PREPOSITIONS 97 

LESSON 27 
PREPOSITIONS 

i. Candles were lighted early. 

2. Candles were lighted in the evening. 

3. Tallow candles were lighted. 

4. Candles of tallow were lighted. 

In English we cannot have a noun or pronoun modifying 
a verb directly. Sometimes it is not desirable to place the 
noun or pronoun as a direct modifier, even of another noun. 
We have a few little words (about twenty-five in common 
use) which serve to make the connection indirectly between 
the noun or pronoun and the word which it is to modify. 

Observe that the word in makes the connection between 
lighted and evening, and that the whole phrase in the evening 
serves to name the time just as early does in the first sentence. 
Of in the fourth sentence shows the relation between tallow 
and candles. 

The prepositions in common use are: in, on, upon, be- 
tween, out, over, under, through, by, beside, besides, except, 
from, to, at, above, before, behind, after, into, against, within, 
without, with, of, throughout, during. 

Besides these there are groups of words which serve as 
single prepositions. These are not separated in analyzing 
sentences. Some of these groups are: in spite of, according 
to, because of, aside from, up to, out from, out of. 

We sometimes say think of me instead of remember me, or 
ran up instead of approached. In such cases the preposition 
is in reality a part of the verb; but if separated from the 
verb and regarded as a single word, it is an adverb. 

Oral Exercise. — From your history or literature lesson 
for to-day, select all the prepositions or preposition word- 
groups, and point out their function in the sentences. 



q8„ the little grammar 

LESSON 28 
COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS 

Words which join words, phrases, or clauses of equal 
rank are called coordinate conjunctions. There are only a 
few of them : and, but, or, and sometimes for. In addition 
to these, there are others that are always used in pairs: 
either . . . or, neither . . . nor, both . . . and, and not 
only . . . but also. 

Oral Exercise. — From one of your lessons for the day, 
or from a page of a magazine or a column of a newspaper, 
select all the coordinate conjunctions and show what they 
connect. 

Punctuation. — These customs in punctuation have been 
touched upon before, but are repeated here for further prac- 
tice, and to call attention in this connection to some points 
not mentioned earlier. 

i. A series of words, phrases, or clauses (three or more) 
is separated by commas, even when the last two are joined 
by a coordinate conjunction. 

They traveled in Italy, Turkey, and Egypt last year. 

Those boys always have a jolly time whether in school, at 
home, or in their summer camp. 

The engineer reported that he had visited the mine, that he 
had investigated it, and that it was a valuable property. 

2. When the independent clauses of a compound sentence 
are connected by a coordinate conjunction, they are sepa- 
rated by a comma. But if the conjunction is omitted, a 
semicolon is used unless the clauses are very short and simi- 
larly constructed. 

She seemed to have very good reasons for her decision, but 
she did not give them, 



COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS 99 

Red cedar makes a beautiful chest; camphorwood makes a 
better. 

3. The comma is not used where only the predicate is 
compounded. 

The ship came in during the night and anchored in the outer 
harbor. 

Punctuate the following sentences and give the reasons 
for the marks you use: 

1. The day was gloomy but we had a cheerful fire in the grate. 

2. Our friends did not go to England last summer they went 

to Colorado. 

3. Caswell Carl Neal and Billy planned to go to see the circus 

unload but found the trains all in when they got up. 

4. I write with ink or use a pencil. 

5. Either the children will all go together or they will go in 

groups with their parents. 

6. Six new books stood on a shelf and writing materials lay on 

the desk. 

7. Books stood on a shelf writing materials lay on the desk. 

8. Not only were the trains delayed but also travel by auto- 

mobile was difficult, 

9. Neither was it possible to travel by train nor could we go 

in our own car. 

10. Old furniture was repaired in the shop and later sold in the 

retail store. 

11. Plan to go yourself or at least send somebody in your place. 

12. The play was given on the school stage while you were away 

at Thanksgiving time or during your illness in March. 

13. He did not go to Havana he went to Honolulu. 

14. Our dog is very happy with the boys in the house at play 

or upon a hunt. 

15. Be sure to come to the game yourself and bring two or three 

friends if you can. 

16. The book was small and thin but the type was fairly large 

clear and well set. 

17. Books should always be printed in clear type for nothing is 

so distressing as a strain upon the eyes. 



i&o THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

1 8. You must call your dog away or I shall not dare to open your 

front gate. 

19. Flax is the source of linen fibre cocoons that of silk. 

20. Copy all of the page exactly and hand the work to your 

teacher to-rnorrow. 

21. Woolen cloth shrinks when it is washed in hot water but it 

can be cleansed without shrinking if one uses moderately 
warm water. 

22. White syrup is used in making some candies others are made 

entirely of sugar. 

23. Fresh grated cocoanut is better but the shredded cocoanut 

sold in packages will do very well. 

24. A climbing rose covered the south wall and the awning shaded 

the window. 

25. By this time the clouds covered the sky but it had not yet 

begun to rain. 



LESSON 29 
SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS 

Such words, as when, where, while, since, if, because, 
whether, than, as, that, though, although, lest, and unless, 
serve to connect subordinate clauses with the words in 
the main clauses which they modify. Such words are 
called subordinate conjunctions. 

As it is with prepositions, so it is with subordinate con- 
junctions: sometimes two words act as one conjunction. 
These groups are as if, as . . . as, so as, provided that, 
and even if. In most cases the extra word may be parsed 
separately; but it is simpler and just as satisfactory to 
regard the group as a single conjunction. 

Examples : 

1. Oak leaves take on beautiful colors when the early frosts come. 

2. They will respond if they are called. 

3. They will respond if called. 



SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS 101 

4. Mr. Monroe decided that his daughter had better go on to 

school another year. 

5. Clark is taller than his brother (is tall). 

6. Is this the hat which you have selected? 

OBSERVATIONS 

1. Most of the subordinate conjunctions do the work of 
some other part of speech, in addition to their own work. 
In the first sentence, when is an adverb of time as well as 
a conjunction. If, in the second and third, is an adverb of 
condition. Which, in the sixth, is a relative pronoun. That, 
in the fourth, is only a conjunction. Where a word fills a 
double office, — conjunction and adverb, or conjunction and 
pronoun, — you may call it by either of its names, or com- 
bine the two into conjunctive-adverb, or conjunctive- 
pronoun (relative pronoun). 

2. While it is always the business of the subordinate 
conjunction to connect a subordinate clause to some 
word in an independent clause, the subordinate clause may 
be only partly expressed. The third sentence omits both 
the subject and the asserting part of the predicate of the 
subordinate clause. When you analyze such an elliptical, 
short-cut clause, supply the missing parts. 

3. Subordinate clauses beginning with than or as are 
nearly always elliptical. 

Is he as old as you (are old)? 

Can you do that work better than Henry (can do it)? 

Punctuation. — 1. A subordinate clause preceding its 
independent clause is set off by a comma. 1 

While we were eating, one of the old neighbors, a friend of 
ours, ran in for a short visit. 

1 The comma is not used if the subordinate clause is very short and 
very closely connected with the principal clause, as // I were you I 
should not go. 



102 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

2. If the subordinate clause follows the main clause, it 
is not set off unless the meaning would be obscure, or the 
sentence misleading, without the comma. 

The older people waited by the roadside while the children 
climbed the rock. 

The party decided to eat the lunch, provided that water could 
be found there. 

3. It happens sometimes that an adverb, such as mean- 
while, moreover, however, wherefore, therefore, or hence, falls 
between the parts of a compound sentence. In such cases 
a semicolon is used to separate the independent clauses. 

After camping for a week, we found that our supplies were 
exhausted; however, we were not far from a general store. 

Punctuate the following sentences correctly and give the 
reason for using each mark. 

1. When the water in the river is high trout-fishing is not good. 

2. Could you punctuate this sentence if you knew no rules? 

3. The newspaper account of the accident was very brief more- 

over it was inaccurate. 

4. Since you have told us about the rules punctuation no longer 

seems to be a mystery. 

5 . They came to our city since the new post office was completed. 

6. While I admit that what you say is true my opinion is not 

changed. 

7. Their guests arrived while the Harrisons were playing tennis. 

8. The visitors spent a pleasant hour under the trees on the 

lawn meanwhile Mrs. Harrison and Nell prepared lunch 
for them. 

9. You may decide upon the evening's entertainment while 

they are finishing their lunch. 

10. Whenever you see a dandelion in your lawn grass take a 

knife and cut it off below the crown. 

11. It will not grow again if you do so. 



INTERJECTIONS 103 

LESSON 30 
INTERJECTIONS 

Exclamatory words, like alas, pshaw, oh, 0, fie, mercy, 
hurrah, and hail, when used independently, are called inter- 
jections. They do not form a part of a sentence at all, but 
are mere indications of feeling, or of some emotion like 
surprise, disgust, disappointment, joy, or sorrow. 

Punctuation. — When an interjection is used as a real 
exclamation, it is followed by an exclamation point. If, 
however, it is used merely as a mild, or rhetorical, exclama- 
tion, it is followed by a comma. 

Examples: 

1. Oh, to be sure, that may be true. 

2. Mercy! what a fright that noise gave me! 

3. Hurrah! hurrah! Harkness makes goal! 

4. Hail! holy light, offspring of heaven. 

5. O Sun in heaven! make light my darkened way. 

Usage. — The capital 0, without a comma, is used in 
addressing some object in awe or admiration or reverence. 
This is called apostrophe. Oh is used merely as a vocative 
or mild exclamation. Since apostrophe is a poetic figure of 
speech, the capital is seen mostly in poetry, while the more 
common oh is seen both in prose and in poetry, wherever 
the sense does not demand the use of apostrophe. 



PART III 
SENTENCE ANALYSIS 

Teaching Direction. — The lessons in this part of the book are 
practice lessons in oral and written sentence analysis. Approxi- 
mately all the useful facts of English grammar have been presented, 
either in Part I or Part II. What remains for Part III is to 
strengthen the impressions made by the earlier lessons, by means of 
additional exercises. Attention will be called from time to time to 
the English idioms which one meets while examining the structure 
of sentences, and explanations will be made as each difficulty or 
apparent oddity arises. 

Teachers who do not wish to teach what is commonly termed 
"technical grammar" should make use of the lessons in the Appendix 
for reference only. The author believes, however, that the infor- 
mation contained in these lessons is of considerable value to any 
of junior-high-school age, and advises that all the lessons be 
I, and that the pupils be drilled upon sentence analysis until 
they become familiar with these constructions that are a part of the 
idiomatic English in daily use in both speaking and writing. Any 
item that is found to be beyond the grasp of any individual pupil 
should, of course, be omitted until that pupil has reached the stage 
in his mental development when he can easily understand it. 



LESSON 1 

SIMPLE SENTENCES, WITH ONLY ADJECTIVE 

WORD-MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT, AND 

ADVERBIAL WORD-MODIFIERS OF THE 

PREDICATE 

Teaching Direction. — The sentences which follow are to be 
analyzed either orally or in writing. It is suggested that certain 
of the sentences, about one third or one fourth of each group, be 

i°5 



106 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

analyzed in writing outside the class. For the convenience of the 
teacher who has many papers to read, the author presents a simple 
shorthand form of written analysis, commonly called diagrams, and 
suggests that all the written analysis be presented in that form. 
The teacher must make frequent tests by means of both the oral and 
written analysis of the same sentence, to make sure that the short- 
hand means something and that it does not become the end instead 
of a humble means. 

In the longer and more complicated sentences, where the pupil 
has difficulty in holding in mind at one time all the relationships 
of parts, the diagram will greatly aid him in visualizing those rela- 
tionships simultaneously, and in holding them in mind without too 
great an effort. 

Examples : 

Sparrows chirp. 

Subject Predicate 
Sparrows | chirp 

The little gray sparrows chirp noisily. 

Subject Predicate 

Sparrows chirp 



1 the I noisily adv. 

little adj. 



gray 



Exercises: 

i. Seeds sprout. 

2. White chalk breaks easily. 

3. The aspen leaves rustled fitfully. 

4. The thick, cold hail dashed down fiercely. 

5. Pretty blue fringed gentians were blooming everywhere. 

6. Timid green frogs croaked tremulously. 

7. Softly fluttered the aspen leaves. 

8. The bright round moon shone steadily there. 

9. White cloud masses floated lazily by. 



SIMPLE SENTENCES 107 

Note: — Cloud is regularly a noun, and cloudy an adjective. 
Here cloud is used instead of cloudy. The noun, for a time, becomes 
an adjective. This adjective use of a noun is a very common thing 
in English. The part of speech a word is, depends upon its use in 
the sentence. Here the word cloud is an adjective. 

10. The yellow autumn leaves whirled away madly. 
n. The timid child ran away home. 

Note. — The noun home here gives the direction toward which a 
motion is made. This is one of the regular functions of adverbs. The 
child ran homeward. Home is a noun which here takes the place and 
fulfills the function of the adverb homeward. This is one of the adverbial 
uses of a noun. 

12. The sturdy small boy walked four miles. 

13. The little boy walked far. 

Note. — The adverb jar and the noun miles both give measure of 
distance. This is another function of adverbs, and another noun used 
as an adverb. 

14. The children's game was quickly played. 

15. Their interest lagged. 

Note. — Children's and their both serve to modify nouns. The 
possessive forms of both nouns and pronouns always act like adjectives 
in sentences. 

16. Artists' materials are sold here. 

17. The boys' boat quickly overturned. 

18. My pet rabbit is white. 

19. His big ears point forward. 

20. This girl's loaf baked well. 

Note. — Observe that while girVs is an adjective modifier it takes 
an adjective modifier itself like 'any other noun — not an adverbial 
modifier. This is a demonstrative adjective. 

Assignment. — In these sentences you have had one case 
of a noun used as an adjective and one of another noun 
as an adverb. Think of, or find, two other examples of each 
of these uses, and report them to the class. 



io8 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 



LESSON 2 



SIMPLE SENTENCES, WITH ADJECTIVE PHRASES 

MODIFYING THE SUBJECTS, AND ADVERBIAL 

PHRASES MODIFYING THE PREDICATES 

Definition. — A simple sentence is one that makes only 
one predication. It has, therefore, but one subject and 
predicate. It may have modifying words and phrases, but 
no modifying clause, for that would bring in another subject 
and predicate. 

Examples: — The delicate pink blossoms of the peach tree 
come early in the spring. 



bl( 


Subject 
Dssoms 


Predicate 
come 






1 the 
delicate 


| early (o 
in — spring 


P 


ink 


| the 
wase) 


c 


>f — peach trees {adjective pi 



I 

1 the 

Notice the group of adjectives that point out and describe 
blossoms. Observe also that the group of words of the peach 
trees also describes blossoms, just as delicate and pink do. 
This phrase is made up of a preposition and its accompany- 
ing noun. The other phrase in the spring, also made up of 
a preposition and a noun, performs the same function in 
the sentence that the adverb early does. It tells the time 
of the blooming. 

Definitions. — A phrase is a group of related words, 
having no subject or predicate, but calling to mind a mental 



SIMPLE SENTENCES 109 

picture. The essential parts of a modifying phrase are usually 
a preposition or a participle and an accompanying noun or 
pronoun. 

An adjective phrase is one which, like an adjective, modi- 
fies a noun or pronoun. 

An adverbial phrase is one which, like an adverb, modifies 
a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

Exercises. — Analyze the following sentences orally or in 
writing, as your teacher may direct. 

1. The envelopes in the package were made of white paper. 

2. The picture over the mantel was painted by my sister. 

3. Soldiers of his company marched through town. 

4. The pole between the houses fell into our back yard. 

5. The tired girl at the window listened very attentively to 

the story. 

6. The needle under the glass always points to the north. 

Of course, it is quite possible to have these words or 
phrases modified by still other words or phrases. In the 
sentences which follow, if that occurs, state whether the 
additional word or phrase is adjective or adverbial. 

7. The snow below the bare hills near our house lay in packed 

drifts of. considerable depth. 

Subject Predicate 

snow lay 



1 the 
below — hills 


|in- 


- drifts 

| packed 






| the 
bare 


| of — depth 

| considerable 




1 


lear — house 





our 



The timid chipmunk from the rock beside our summer 
cabin came to the door of the back porch for peanuts. 



no 



THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 



9. Til the spring a livelier crimson comes upon the burnished 
dove. 

10. Across the wider part of the meadow Lloyd's friend ran with 

the pheasant's eggs. 

11. This friend of Lloyd ran across the wider part of the meadow 

with the eggs of a pheasant. 

12. Under the spreading chestnut tree, The village smithy 

stands. 



LESSON 3 

COMPLEX SENTENCES WITH AN ADJECTIVE CLAUSE 

MODIFYING THE SUBJECT OR AN ADVERBIAL 

CLAUSE MODIFYING THE PREDICATE 

Definition. — A complex sentence is one which contains 
one or more subordinate clauses. 

Examples. — ■ The Spitz dog which you saw on the porch belongs 
to Mr. Abbott. 



Subject 



Predicate 





iog 


belongs 




Subject Predicate Object 
You | saw — * which 




the 
Spitz 


1 to- 


Mr. Abbott 



porch 



I the 



Abbie hung her sweater where she could find it easily. 

Subject Predicate Object 



Abbie 



hum 



sweater 



Subject Predicate Object 
she could find — > it 

where | easily 



COMPLEX SENTENCES 



in 



Note. — The diagram shows, in the first sentence, that the clause 
is an adjective modifier of dog, and that the word which connects the 
subordinate clause with the word which it modifies is a conjunctive 
(relative) pronoun, and is the object of saw. 

In the second sentence, the clause is an adverbial modifier. Where 
is both a conjunction and an adverb. The diagram shows this double 
function of the word where. 

Exercises: 

i. May's cousin, who came early, had prepared the lunch before 
she left home. 

2. Ronald played the flute when he was a small boy. 

3. If you will go with me, I will show you a yellow warbler's 

nest. 

4. The aqueduct which brings the water to the city is forty 

miles long. 
5 The interesting man whom ycu have been talking with is the 
explorer that the papers have said so much about. 

man 1 is <— explorer 





1 the 
interesting 


| the 
papers have said — > much 


you | h 


ive been talking 
| with — whom 




1 so 
about — that 



6. The geography class recited while you were out of the room. 

7. Which would you choose if you had a choice? 

8. Arthur's uncle bought the steamer chair while he was travel- 

ing in South America. 

9. Do not come to the class for this lesson unless well prepared. 

Subject Predicate 

(you) do come 









| not 
to — class 




for 


— lesson 






| this 
(you are) prepared 




unless well 



H2 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

y 

10. If thoroughly satisfied with the offer, you should accept it. 
ii. While walking down Eighth Street, Fannie read the letter 

she had just got from the postman. 
12. The boys who were playing soldier set up a tent that they 

had made of an old piece of canvas. 



LESSON 4 

SENTENCES CONTAINING MODIFYING PHRASES 
MADE WITH PARTICIPLES AND ACCOMPANY- 
ING NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 

There are two common uses of the participles. The one 
is as a part of a verb phrase; the other as an adjective 
modifier. 

i. As a word in a verb phrase: 

We have been skating on the lake. 

2. As an adjective modifier: 

There is an old willow tree standing on the shore of the lake. 

Have been skating is the asserting (predicate) part of the 
first sentence. Observe that the participle skating alone 
cannot make a complete predication. 

Standing describes willow tree just as an adjective might. 

The past participles of weak verbs, and of some strong 
verbs also, have the same forms as the past tense forms of 
the same verbs: 



•rint printed 


printed 


iaint painted 


painted 


»ind bound 


bound 



Where these forms occur, it is only by observing their 
use in the sentence that one can determine which is parti- 
ciple and which is the asserting form of the verb. 



SENTENCE ANALYSIS 



113 



Another regular use of the participle, the use in absolute 
phrases, should be kept in mind here. 

The ice being thin, we were obliged to keep near the shore. 

SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS 

Unwarmed by any sunset light 
The gray day darkened into night. 

day . I darkened 



1 the 
gray 
unwarmed 



I into — night 



1 by — light 

1 any 
sunset 



It was an unwarmed (adjective) day. The participle 
unwarmed is in its turn modified by the adverbial phrase 
by any sunset light. 

Clara's reasons having been given, the manager granted her 
a short vacation. 

Subject Predicate Object 

manager granted — > vacation 



her {Indirect object) 



I ! 



a 

short 



Clara's reasons having been given is an absolute phrase, 
and cannot modify manager or anything else in the sentence. 

Analyze orally, or diagram, the following sentences, 
giving special attention to the function of the participle in 
the sentence: 

1 . The day of the examination found Harry thoroughly prepared. 

2. Being well prepared, he found the examination easy. 

3. Having been thoroughly prepared, Harry went up for his 

examination with confidence. 



H4 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

4. His lessons having been thoroughly learned, Harry went into 

the examination with all conridence. 

5. Harry had been preparing for the examination through the 

entire summer. 

6. They passed a flat rock standing by the roadside and looking 

like a primitive altar. 

7. My friend was watching a plover running through the marsh 

grass. 

8. Mr. Weaver is planning a new house. 

9. Mr. Weaver is planning to build a new house. 

10. Mr. Weaver, planning to build his new house, found that 

prices for material had risen. 
Note. — You will observe in sentences 8, 9, and 10 that participles 
made from transitive verbs may be used as adjective modifiers, and at 
the same time take objects, directly, like verbs, thus building up a 
participial phrase. Notice, also, in 9 and 10, that the object of a 
participle may be an infinitive. Remember that the infinitive is just 
the noun form of a verb. The regular idiom is planning to build, not 
planning on building. 

11. We met a man carrying a full basket of fine trout caught in 

the Laramie. 

12. In the cloak-shop where Zelig worked, he stood daily, 

brandishing his heavy iron on the sizzling cloth, hardly 
ever glancing about him. 



LESSON 5 

COMPOUND SENTENCES, AND SENTENCES 

CONTAINING COMPOUND SUBJECTS, 

COMPOUND PREDICATE VERBS, OR 

COMPOUND PREDICATE 

COMPLEMENTS 

Punctuation.— 1. The clauses of a compound sentence 
are separated by commas if they are connected by one of 
the simple conjunctions and, but, or for. 

The material in your story is good, but the penmanship is 
very poor. 



COM POUND SENTENCES 115 

You may go to the game, for it promises to be a good one. 
Find the place on the map, and then determine the distance 
from Chicago. 

2. The clauses of a compound sentence are separated by 
semicolons if there is no conjunction used to join them. 

They did not travel then in Pullman cars; they had only prairie 
schooners. 

3. The clauses of a compound sentence are separated by 
semicolons if one of the conjunctive adverbs is dropped in 
between these clauses. The conjunctive adverbs are: how- 
ever, moreover hence, accordingly, nevertheless , so, also, other- 
wise, and similar words. 

A light snow covered the ground; otherwise the cold would 
have damaged the crops. 

The men were urged to enlist; moreover, they were convinced 
that it was their duty. 

4. Compound elements, such as subject, predicate, or 
object, are not separated by commas unless they occur in 
a series of three or more. 

Each player made a great effort and succeeded in making his 
gain. 

The pencils are shaped, glued, and polished before the paint 
is applied. 

Notice that the recent custom is to insert the comma 
before the and in a series. 

A FORM FOR WRITTEN ANALYSIS 

Courts for tennis and a cinder track for field events were 
provided afterward. 

courts and track were provided 



for ■ — tennis 



I a 1 afterward 

cinder 



for — events 
I. field 



u6 



THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 



Four clay courts for tennis and a quarter-mite cinder track 
for field events were laid out and graded afterward. 

Adverb 
courts laid (out) 

\ /: 

\ I / 

\ [Were / 



for — tennis 



track 



| four 
clay 



and 

/ 
/ 



/ 



\ 



and 
\ 



| afterward 



graded 



\± 
cinder 



afterward 



quarter- mile 



for — events 



| field 

Make your diagrams just as simple as possible. There is 
no one right way of doing this. Strive to make the diagram 
show as many of the facts about the syntax of the sentence 
as possible, and to that end construct the diagram in any 
way you please. 

Four clay courts were laid out for tennis at the time when the 
school was built, but the cinder track was not graded until the 
year following. 

Adverb 
courts were laid (out) 





| four 
clay 


| at — time 










| the 




fc 


>r — tennis 


school 
| the 




but 


was built 
when 


track | was 


graded 








1 the 
cinder 




| not 
until year 












1 the 
following 



SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS 117 

SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS 

1. The books and papers are kept in the upper drawer of the 

desk. 

2. When you have finished your work, collect all the pencils, 

drawing pads, and erasers. 

3. The captain tried to get all his men to play together, but 

succeeded only partially. 

4. All of the older players did good team work, but the new 

recruits played as individuals. 

5. The bearings and rods are turned and polished by machines. 

6. A light snow covered the ground; otherwise the cold would 

have damaged the crops. 

7. The men were urged to enlist; moreover, they were con- 

vinced that it was their duty. 

8. Each player made a great effort and succeeded in making 

his gain. 

9. They did not travel then in Pullman cars; they had only 

prairie schooners. 
10. Gold, silver, lead, and tungsten are mined and refined in 

Colorado. 
it. Polly was very tired, but she slowly plodded along the dusty 

road toward home, 

12. The Scout-Master urged the boys to hurry; not a moment 

could be spared. 

13. I was very hungry, and my whole stock of cash was a Dutch 

dollar and about a shilling. 

14. Every man desires to live long, but no man wants to grow old. 

15. Of thy unspoken word thou art master; thy spoken word is 

master of thee. 

16. Straws float upon the surface, but pearls lie at the bottom 

of the stream. 

17. Bad men excuse their faults; good men abandon them. 

18. Knock at the door of Old King Cole and ask the way to the 

village. 

19. He gave one toys, the other books. 

20. Places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter, nor 

are they very warm in summer. 

21. The wind and the rain are over, the clouds are divided in the 

heavens, and over the green hills flies the inconstant sun. 



n8 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

LESSON 6 

MISCELLANEOUS SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS 

i. Weakness on both sides is the motto of all quarrels. 

2. Come, give us a taste of your quality. 

3. Things that have a common quality ever seek their kind. 

4. Three may keep a secret if two of them are dead. 

5. All things come round to him who will but wait. 

6. She sat like patience on a monument, 
Smiling at grief. 

7. There is a tide in the affairs of men, 
Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune. 

8. The sea appears all golden beneath the sunlit sky. 

9. Sweetest melodies are those that are by distance made more 

sweet. 

10. Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard are sweeter. 

11. A good intention clothes itself with sudden power. 

12. No change of circumstance can repair a defect of character. 
[3. He hath a daily beauty in his life 

That makes me ugly. 

14. Men can counsel and speak comfort to that grief which they 

themselves do not feel. 

15. The world is grown so bad that wrens make prey where 

eagles dare not perch. 

16. It is as easy to draw back a stone thrown with force from 

the hand, as to recall a word once spoken. 

17. To have ideas is to gather flowers; to think is to weave 

them into garlands. 

18. If you do not wish a man to do a thing, get him to talk about it. 

19. A little fire is quickly trodden out; 
Which, being suffered, rivers cannot quench. 

20. No one is useless in this world who lightens the burdens of 

it for another. 

21. Count that day lost whose low descending sun 
Views from thy hand no worthy action done. 

22. Through tattered clothes small vices do appear; 
Robes and furred gowns hide all. 

23 One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. 
24. Wise sayings often fall on barren ground, but a kind word 
is never thrown away. 



SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS 119 

LESSON 7 
MISCELLANEOUS SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS 



(Continued) 

1. The happiest man is he who, being above the troubles which 

money brings, has his hands the fullest of work. 

2. Young men who spend many years at school and college are 

too apt to forget the great end of life, which is to be and 
to do, not to read and brood Over what other men have 
been and done. 

3. The redwoods, burying their moccasined feet in the red soil, 

stood in Indian file along the track, trailing an uncouth 
benediction from their bending boughs upon the passing 
bier. 

4. Whither, midst falling dew, 

While glow the heavens with the last steps of day, 
Far, through their rosy depths, dost thou pursue 
Thy solitary way? 

5. Vainly the fowler's eye 

Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong, 
As, darkly painted on the crimson sky, 
Thy figure floats along. 

6. He, who, from zone to zone, 

Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight, 
In the long way that I must tread alone 
Will lead my steps aright. 

7. Some say that ever 'gainst (when) that season comes 
W r herein our Saviour's birth is celebrated, 

The bird of dawning singeth all night long: 
And then, they say, no spirit dares stir abroad; 
The nights are wholesome: then no planets strike, 
No fairy takes (charms or enchants), nor witch hath 

power to charm, 
So hallowed and so gracious is the time. 

8. Men have been more interested in education during the 

last years than they have been for many generations. 



120 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

o. The problem of modern education has been growing more 
complex with the increasing complexity of modern life. 

10. City children confined in flats and apartment houses have 

no wood to chop, no cows to milk, no hens to feed. 

11. If they are to learn anything of the world that feeds them, 

clothes them, and warms them, they must learn it out of 
books. 

12. Parents alarmed at what children do not know demand that 

schools teach more subjects. 

13. New sciences have arisen, new languages and literature have 

been discovered, and new histories have been unearthed. 

14. The boy who is going into business wants a business edu- 

cation. 

15. The girl who is going to marry wants training in home 

economics. 

16. Of all personal problems which affect the community, the 

problem of religious belief, affiliation, and action is the 
greatest. 

17. The new generation cannot wholly know the barriers of 

custom and tradition which women had to break down 
before they attained their new position. 

18. The new generation bears upon its shoulders the burden of 

peace, the burden of adjustment of boundaries, and of 
international organization. 



Note. — The sentences in these lists are taken from many sources. 
The authorship is usually apparent in the quoted sentence, without 
specific mention; but it seems fitting to say that, in this final group of 
sentences, 8 to 18 are quoted from Youth and the New World. 
Edited by Ralph P. Boas, Atlantic Monthly Press. 



PART IV 

MATERIALS FOR REFERENCES 

I 
PUNCTUATION 

What follows is a set of working rules for punctuation, 
such as anyone who writes needs to know and use. While 
it is a tabulation of the minimum amount of punctuation 
for those who write, it is sufficient for all practical pur- 
poses. 

All the rules have been stated, one at a time, in appro- 
priate places throughout the book. They are brought 
together here for ready reference. 

The rules of punctuation which are employed in all cor- 
respondence and in straightforward print are so simple 
and so few "that the wayfaring man, though a fool," may 
learn the facts in three or four lessons. Of course, reducing 
what he knows about punctuation to habitual use requires 
time and practice. 

PERIODS AND QUESTION MARKS 

i. Use a question mark at the end of a direct question. 
2. Use a period after an abbreviation, and at the end of a de- 
clarative or imperative sentence. 

COMMAS 

i. Use commas to set off vocatives and appositives. 

Example. — I declare, Henry (vocative), you do not seem to 
remember that this mark, the comma (appositive) , has any special 
uses. 

121 



122 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

2. Use commas to set off words and phrases inserted in 
a sentence in a parenthetical way, such as however, I suppose, 
of course, etc. 

Example. — You know, / suppose, that the statement is untrue. 
It makes very little difference, however. 

3. Use a comma to separate short, simple coordinate 
clauses connected by and, but, or for, and the other simple 
conjunctions. 

Example. — I met the man yesterday, talked with him a few 
minutes, and directed him to the Atlantic office. 

4. Use a comma to set off a dependent clause preceding 
its independent clause. 

Example. — While we were eating, a small boy, the son of one 
of the natives, came running toward our camp. (Try this with- 
out commas.) 

5. Use a comma between any sentence elements that 
might be improperly read together if the comma were 
omitted. 

Example. — On the walk leading to the cellar, steps were heard. 

6. Use commas to separate all the members of a series 
of words, phrases, or clauses, as in this sentence. 

7. If two adjectives are almost parallel in meaning, they 
should be separated by a comma. 

Right: A lazy, dreamy afternoon. 
Right: A big gray coyote. 

8. Set off a nonrestrictive clause with a comma, but not 
a restrictive clause. 

Example. — Dr. Eliot, who was formerly president of Harvard 
University, spoke to the assembled group. 

9. In writing conversation set off the author's guide- 
words. 



PUNCTUATION 123 

Example. — "This thing is an outrage," he asserted warmly. 
; 'I resent the statement." 

10. Use a comma to set off an absolute phrase. 

Example. — The clouds having cleared away, we decided to 
go On with our plans. 

SEMICOLONS 

1. Use a semicolon to separate clauses of a Compound 
sentence that are not joined by any conjunction, or that 
are joined by one of the conjunctive adverbs so, therefore, 
moreover, also, then, besides, and similar words. 

2. Use a semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound 
sentence, if the clauses are long and have commas within 
themselves ; or in any case where a comma would not be 
a mark sufficiently strong to make the meaning clear. 

QUOTATION MARKS 

1. Use double quotation marks around all parts of a 
sentence that are directly quoted. 

2. Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation 
within a quotation. 

THREE DON'TS 

1. Don't use any punctuation mark unless you know a 
specific reason for it. 

2. Don't use dashes for periods, or vaguely for all kinds 
of marks when in doubt. 

3 Don't use either single or double quotation marks with 
indirect quotations. The following sentence is correctly 
punctuated: The referee declared that the goal Was fairly 
made. 



124 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

II 
COMMON ERRORS IN ENGLISH 

The list of errors tabulated here is only a suggestion, to 
pupils and teachers, of things to be avoided. No one pupil 
will make all these mistakes. It will be well for each pupil, 
with the help of the teacher and fellow pupils, to check with 
a pencil each of the incorrect forms to which he is addicted, 
and then conscientiously avoid each one of them. 

The list does not, of course, contain all the possible 
errors that children make. Children in New England do 
not make the same mistakes that children in the Southern 
States make. Nor do these make the mistakes that are 
common in the Middle West, the Rocky Mountain, or the 
Pacific, states. One family or group of families has its own 
errors, and another family or group has its. 

Space is left at the end of this list for additional personal 
errors, including provincialisms. 

i. The "loose and," an' nen, and so, etc. — This is the 
habit of running all of one's speech together by using and 's 
to connect the statements. 

Example. — They all came in and got warm, and then put on 
their sweaters and went back and skated till nearly dark, and 
the boys had built up a big fire and it had burned down to a fine 
bed of coals and was just the thing to roast the wienies over. 

2. Lack of "sentence sense." — Many people have no 
clear notion of what properly constitutes a sentence. This 
lack does not show itself much in speaking, but it is ap- 
parent to the eye in writing. It appears in two forms: 
First, a writer will run two complete, independent state- 
ments together with no punctuation between, or with only 
a comma. 



COMMON ERRORS 



125 



Example. — Cousin George came on the five o'clock train, 
this was quite a surprise to us. 

Second, a writer will punctuate a phrase or a subordinate 
clause as if it were a sentence. 

Example. — We had a good supper ready for him, though. 
When we had got through talking. 

3. The habit of beginning sentences with "well, ('ull), why 
(w'y)," etc. — The occasional use of well and why is not 
especially bad in free-and-easy oral speech. These are 
bad only when they become habits. 

4. Faulty pronunciation and enunciation of words fre- 
quently used. — No two boys or girls would be found to 
have the same set of troublesome words; the lists overlap. 
One group of pupils used the following words in the faulty 
manner indicated. Perhaps you have some of these faults, 
and still others not listed here. Get someone who hears 
you speak often to set down your list of incorrect pronun- 
ciation or hazy enunciations. 





Mispronounced 




Mispronounced 


from 


frum 


just 


jist, or jest 


was 


wuz, or uz 


been 


ben 


cause 


cuz 


come here 


come 'eer 


thought 


thot 


did you 


ju 


gets 


gits 


of 


a, or u, or uv 


picture 


pitcher 


about 


'bout 


pretty 


purty 


when 


wen 


can 


kin 


something 


sumpin 


catch 


ketch 


there 


they 


hungry 


hongry 


body 


buddy 


ate 


et 


then 


'en 


drowned 


drownded 


used to 


useto 


them 


'em, or 'urn 


our 


are 


stole 


stoled 


have 


hev 


give me 


gimme 


wished 


wushed 



126 



THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 





Mispronounced 




Mispronounced 


four 
had 
told 


for 
hed 
tole 




slept 
across 
kind of 


slep 
acrost 
kin da 


well 
why 

wanted to 
going to 
once 


'ull 
w'y 

wanda 

gona 

onct 




poems 

geography 

hundred 

understand 

their 


pomes 

geogafy 
hunderd 
un'erstan' 
thur 


men 

far 
root 


min 

fur 

rut 




got to 
do you 
hallooed 


gotta 

d'ye 

hollered 


you 

all right 
asked 


yu 

awright 

ast 




going 

scared 

engine 


agoin', or goin' 

skeered 

injun 


5. The ' 


1 irrelevant 


so." - 


So is often used between two 


statements 


when the second 


is not a conclusion from the 


first. 











Example. — I am going into the eighth grade this year, so 
school begins on the first Tuesday in September. 

6. The " 'cause-and-because " chain. — Some people, in- 
stead of connecting all their sentences with the "loose and" 
or "and so," use 'cause and because for the same purpose. 

Example. — You can have a plain tailored hat for Sunday 
just as you can for week days, because I think black is a good 
color to wear with a tailored hat because you can wear it with 
any dress. 

The second because is properly used in that place. It 
states a reason. 

7. The False Conditional: 

Wrong: Three and four would be seven. 
Correct: Three and four are seven, 

8. Definition by using a time or place clause: 

Wrong: An eclipse is when the earth is between the sun and 
moon. 



COMMON ERRORS 127 

Correct: An eclipse is caused by the earth coming between the 

sun and moon. 
Wrong: Measles are where you all break out in little red spots. 

9. Wrong approach to a statement: 

Awkward beginning: To stop bleeding, if you cut an artery, why 

you have to tie the artery. 
More direct beginning: If you cut an artery, you must tie it to 

stop the bleeding. 

10. Wandering thought. — There are a number of expres- 
sions used in speech which indicate that the speaker has 
nothing clearly in mind to say, or that the thought has 
escaped before being completed. Among these are : 

(a) Beginning sentences with "Well — a," "Why — a," 
"W'y-a," "Er," etc. 

(b) Breaking into a sentence with " And — a," 
"Oh — a," etc. 

(c) Incoherent trailing off without completing a sentence. 
The speaker sometimes ends by saying, "and things," "and 
everything," "and all," "and stuff," or nothing at all. 

Example. — They are savage and can't read — and — and 
things. 

(d) The use of a vague "like." 

Examples. — ■ You take it and just scrub like. Did you see a 
pencil like, with a case and the lead screwed in? 

(e) Impossible double function given to some part of a 
sentence. 

Example. — The first stick is fourteen inches long is the best 
length. 

Here " fourteen inches long " is both the complement 
of the first " is " and the subject of the second. 

n. Double Negatives: 

Examples. — He did n't seem to see nothing. I could n't 
hardly get to school by nine o'clock. 



128 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

12. Pleonasm and Tautology. — The first of these faults 
consists usually of using two subjects, one a noun and the 
other a pronoun. 

Example. — ■ Harry he tried it next. 

Tautology is simply the use of unnecessary words. 
Example. — Where was your hat at ? 

13. Vulgarisms. — There are words and forms of speech 
which are not used at all, in speech or writing, by cultured 
and educated people. These are called vulgarisms. 

Examples. — Ain't, nairy, this here, hadn't orter. 

14. Provincialisms. — Certain words and constructions 
which are not generally used in all the English-speaking 
world, commonly occur in the oral speech in some limited 
section of the country. 

Examples. — ■ Like as a conjunction. (You do not write like 
you did ten years ago.) Some place for somewhere, all the farther 
for as far as, etc. 

15. Mistakes in the use of nouns: 

(a) Wrong form of plural in writing. 

(b) Wrong possessive form in writing. 

16. Mistakes in the use of pronouns: 

(a) Wrong form, such as hisself, theirselves, etc. 

(b) Vague use of it without an antecedent. 

Example. — It says in the book that coal is mined in Wyoming. 

(c) Wrong case form — nominative for objective, etc. 

(d) The habit of using you impersonally. This is bad 
only when it becomes a habit. Used occasionally for the 
sake of vividness, it is permissible. 

(e) A pronoun with only a vague antecedent, or no ante- 
cedent at all. 



COMMON ERRORS 129 

17. Mistakes in the use of adjectives: 

(a) Pronouns used for adjectives. 
Example. — Them boys. 

(b) Poor or unidiomatic choice of adjectives. 
Examples. — Much for many, lot for many, etc. 

(c) Wrong form of comparative or superlative degree. 

(d) Miscellaneous faults. 

Examples. — ■ These kind of; they was for there was, etc. 

18. Mistakes in the use of verbs: 

(a) Disagreement of the verb in person or number with 
the subject. 

Example. — • Each of the boys were present at noon. 

Since boys is the nearest noun to the verb, by attraction 
it seems to affect one's choice of a verb. Each, the real 
subject, requires a singular verb. 

(b) Present tense and past tense confused. 

Examples. — She run up and said. She come to school late 
all last week. 

(c) Past tense and past participle confused. This occurs 
only with a small group of troublesome verbs. 

(d) Sequence of tenses. 

(e) Regular and irregular verb forms confused. 
Examples. — Siispicioned for suspected, throwed for threw, etc. 

(/) Subjunctive disregarded in such expressions as, If I 
were, if he were, etc. 
(g) Wrong verb used. 
Examples. — Set for sit, laid for lay, can for may. 

(h) Indiscriminate use of shall and will, should and would. 

(i) Telescoping words in pronouncing. 

Examples. — Gotta for got to, gona for going to, hatta for have to. 



1 3 o THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

What are your errors in addition to the ones you have 
checked in this printed list? 
i 

2 

3 
4 
S 
6 

7 



III 

SLANG 

Make a list of the slang that you use and then check off 
each expression as soon as you conquer each expression 
and cease to use it. 



APPENDIX 

Additional Lessons for the Abler and 
More Advanced Pupils 

LESSON A 

PREDICATE COMPLEMENTS 

With Intransitive Verbs 

Teaching Direction. — Notice the teaching directions at the be- 
ginning of Part III. 

There are several kinds of complements which it is not necessary for 
the school children to recognize by name; but the young person who is going 
to test his own speech by analysis needs to know that these are regular and 
acceptable forms of expression in English. All these complements arc 
explained here, but it is advised that all except the first three be omitted. 
The information concerning the others is to be used largely for later refer- 
ence, after the pupil has finished school. Some exercises in the recognition 
of these complements are here supplied. 

Definition. — ■ The complement of the predicate is the word or 
group of words which combines with the verb in such a way as 
to complete the predication. 

Some verbs and verb phrases make a complete predicate with- 
out the help of a complement; but many require the help of a 
noun, pronoun, or adjective to complete the statement or question. 

Predicate complete with a verb or verb i. The horses ran. 

phrase: 2. The horses had been running. 

Predicate requiring a complement: 1. The late flowers are yellow. 

2. These flowers are asters. 

3. She picked the asters. 

Teach your pupils to indicate by labeling, if necessary, the various 
complements when they are using diagrams for written analysis. 

J 3i 



132 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

THE COMPLEMENTS WITH INTRANSITIVE VERBS 

i. The predicate noun. — The material was bronze. 

2. The predicate pronoun. — The ring is hers. 

3. The predicate adjective. — This apple is ripe. 

Observe that the predicate noun completes the predication by 
naming the same thing that the subject names. The predicate 
pronoun and adjective complete the predication by modifying 
the subject like any adjective modifier. 

4. The adverbial predicate. — With verbs of condition and 
motion the qualifying force of the predicate adjective is often 
distributed between the subject and the verb. 

The president stands firm. 
The boy came running. 
The bell rings dear and full. 

You see that this adverbial predicate is always an adjective in 
form. It does not end in -ly like many adverbs, but it acts like 
both adjective and adverb. Firm describes the president and also 
tells how he stands. If you wish to show merely how he stands, 
you would say firmly. Running, in the second sentence, describes 
the boy and also indicates the manner of his coming. 

5. The cognate object. — We usually associate the term object 
with transitive verbs; but constructions that we call objects 
occur with intransitive verbs. These are the cognate object, the 
indefinite object, and the reflexive object. Cognate means related to. 
Some intransitive verbs are followed by nouns cognate in mean- 
ing with the verb itself, like sing and song, run and race. This 
related noun is called a cognate object. 

He ran the race creditably. 

She sang her song first. 

They easily jump a sixteen-foot jump. 

6. The indefinite object. — The word it is sometimes used 
without any antecedent as a kind of object with an intransitive 
verb, and is called indefinite because it does not refer to any 
particular thing. No other word besides it is so used. 

We footed it (walked) across the fields. 

Come and trip it (dance) as you go, 
On the light fantastic toe. 



APPENDIX 133 

7. The reflexive object. — ■ Once in a while, in the Bible or in 
language imitating Biblical style, an intransitive verb is followed 
by a pronoun (not the reflexive pronoun with self) in such a way 
that the action indicated by the verb reflects upon the doer of 
the act. 

He sat him down by the seaside and taught them. 

The regular way of saying this is to use the transitive verb 
with a reflexive pronoun with -self. He set himself down, etc. 
The reflexive object is a recognized grammatical expression. 

8. The factitive predicate adjective. — The word. factitive means 
causative. 

She sang her throat hoarse. 

Sang is an intransitive verb; but when we put the adjective 
hoarse with it, this word causes the intransitive verb to take an 
object. She sang hoarse her throat. 

Subject Verb Factitive Predicate Adjective Object 

She sang (hoarse) — > throat 

SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS 

Omit all the sentences except those which contain the kinds 
of complements you have been taught in class. 

1. The team came trotting down the field. 

2. One word of praise made him happy. 

3. I have fought a good fight. 

4. That plainly dressed man is a great scholar. 

5. I am sure I can walk it if you can. 

6. Mary Harding has already been our secretary. 

7. Now I lay me down to sleep. 

8. The leader remained steadfast in his determination. 

9. Her name is Clara. 

10. Which one of those ladies is Mrs. Harrison? 

11. That is she. 

12. Albert has already walked his shoes thin. 

13. The happiest man is he who, being above the troubles which 

money brings, has his hands the fullest of work. 

14. Is your science teacher Mr. Albright? 

15. Has he been a teacher very long? 

16. As soon as you get the ball, go it. 



134 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 



17. Then I sat me down and thought it through. 

18. He talked his audience drowsy. 

19. Our biggest fish was a rainbow trout. 
This celery is fresh, well bleached, and crisp. 



20. 



LESSON B 
PREDICATE COMPLEMENTS 

With Transitive Verbs 

The kinds of complements which go with the transitive verbs 
are only three, and these are simpler than those which accom- 
pany the intransitive. They are explained below r . All these 
should be studied and understood. 

1. The object. (Sometimes called the object complement or 
the direct object.) 

They used red tiles on the roof 
The club elected Mr. Morse. 
The secretary notified him. 

2. The indirect object. 

The clerk handed me the book. 
The clerk handed the book to me. 

These two sentences say exactly the- same thing, and both are 
good English. Both use the word book as the object. The second 
one uses a prepositional phrase to show to whom the book was 
given; the first uses the pronoun without the preposition. The 
first me is the indirect object of gave. 

Subject Verb Indirect Object Object 

Clerk gave (me) — > book 

[the 

3. The factitive predicate adjective or noun. (Sometimes 
called the objective complement.) 

Either the adjective or the noun may be used with the transi- 
tive verb as a factitive predicate. 

Starch makes cloth stiff. 

Factitive 
Predicate Adjective Object 
Starch makes (stiff) — » cloth 



APPENDIX 135 

Makes stiff is equivalent to the one word stiffens. 
The team elected Carter captain. 
Factitive Predicate 

Noun Object 

team elected (captain) — > Carter 

[The 

If you had such a word, elected captain would be equivalent 
to captainated. 

Now change these active verbs into passive verb phrases, and 
you will observe that the factitive predicate adjective or noun 
becomes the ordinary predicate adjective or predicate noun. 

Cloth is made stiff by starch. 

Carter was elected captain by the team. 

4. The retained object. 

Examine these three sentences: 

Her father gave her a watch. 

A watch was given to her by her father. 

She was given a watch by her father. 

The third sentence is neither the usual active nor passive 
construction. The verb phrase is passive, but it is followed by 
an object. This is called the retained object. While it is used 
in informal speech to a limited extent, it is objected to by all 
careful writers and most correct speakers. 

SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS 

1. His business brought him a fair income. 

2. The nation calls every man to some duty. 

3. She did what she could for the sick man. 

4. Give him your best answer. 

5. Could you bring me some samples of your prize corn? 

6. Their sergeants made them good soldiers. 

7. Martha accidentally broke a small vase. 

8. Who planned the building which I see there among the trees? 

9. The potter moulds common clay into beautiful shapes. 

10. One touch of Nature makes the whole world kin. 

11. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul. 

12. The walls were painted green and brown, 



136 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

13. This circumstance made Martin think. 

14. Give your friend an early answer if you can. 

15. Her brother has been made captain. 

16. The president commissioned her brother captain. 

17. Maud bought herself a pair of skates. 

18. Winter brings us a thoughtfulness of others. 

19. What could give them greater pleasure? 

20. This address made us all conscious of our patriotic duty. 

21. Thou, in our wonder and astonishment, 
Hast built thyself a livelong monument. 



LESSON C 

SUBSTANTIVE USES OF PHRASES (PARTICIPIAL, 
GERUND, AND INFINITIVE) 

Three kinds of word-groups may be used in sentences as if 
they were single nouns. These are the three phrases made up 
respectively of a participle and its complement, a gerund and its 
complement, and an infinitive and its complement. Each is 
illustrated below. 

1. Skimming over the smooth ice gave the skaters the sensation of 
flying. 

Subject Predicate Indefinite Object 

Skimming 
jover — the smooth ice 

I gave (skaters) — > sensation 

I of — flying 

The subject is the participle skimming, with its associated 
group of words, over the smooth ice. 

2. Driving a high-powered motor car required skill and coolness. 

Subject Predicate 

Driving — > motor — car 



high-powered 

I requires — > skill and coolness 



APPENDIX 137 

In this sentence the gerund driving, with its object and attached 
words taken together, makes up the subject of the verb requires. 

3. To drive a high-powered motor car requires skill and coolness. 

This sentence has the infinitive with to as a foundation for 
its substantive phrase subject, instead of the other infinitive, the 
gerund in -ing. Otherwise the sentences are the same. 

SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS 

1. His occupation is mending antique furniture. 

2. He tried to mend a colonial armchair of oak. 

3. Our Persian cat walked through the room without making a sound. 

4. To be constantly occupied in some useful work was his wish. 

5. His wish was to be occupied in some useful work. 

6. He tried to be constantly occupied in some useful work. 

7. He that is good at making excuses is seldom good at anything else. 

8. Mary's common fault was speaking without thinking. 

9. To speak without thought is to be constantly at fault. 

10. Morris's most annoying fault was forgetting his promises. 

11. He constantly tried to remember what he had promised. 

12. Forgetting his promises was his most annoying fault. 

13. Passing through a dark ravine caused the driver to lose his way. 

14. We had no mishap on the journey, except to lose our way for a 

short time. 

15. To lose one's way on a strange road at night is annoying. 



LESSON D 

EXPLETIVES IT AND THERE 

It and there, when they are used merely to reverse the order 
of the subject and predicate, are called expletives. Sentences 
containing these are easily analyzed by omitting the expletive 
and restating the sentence in the usual order. 

There may be some good reason for this course of action. 
Expletive: 

There 

reason mav be 



1 for — course 



good 



1 this 
of — action 



138 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

It is not for us to decide what to do. 

Expletive: 

to do — » what 
(It) to decide — > 

I is 

I not I for us 



SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS 

1. Are there any peaches left in the basket? 

2. It had been decided to ask for a holiday. 

3. There are times when patience becomes a mistake. 

4. It is my cousin's intention to attend our school. 

5. There came a voice from heaven. 

6. There is as much eloquence in the tone of voice, in the eyes, and 

in the air of a speaker, as in his choice of words. 

7. There were not more than twenty people present. 

8. It is well to do one's best. 

9. There is condemnation for one who does less than his best. 
10. It is not known on whose advice he acted. 

n. It is useless to try to make reparation. 

12. Are there any letters for me this morning? 

13. There is much music in this little instrument. 

14. There are good reasons for his decision. 

15. There are many things to be discussed. 



LESSON E 

SENTENCES CONTAINING PHRASES AND CLAUSES 
USED AS IF THEY WERE NOUNS 

Frequently it happens that a group of words, either a phrase 
or a clause, serves as if it were a single noun. In other lessons 
you will see an infinitive group or a gerund group acting like a 
subject noun, a predicate noun, or an object complement. Since 
these groups are treated more fully elsewhere, they will be omitted 
here. 

It is not an uncommon thing to find a prepositional phrase 
used as if it were one word. These are usually adjective uses, 
however, and are not nouns. 



APPENDIX 139 

Examples: 

That seems of no value (valueless). 

The man seemed in good health (healthy). 

CLAUSES USED AS NOUNS 
That you have wronged me doth appear in this. 
That 

you have wronged — > mel 

I doth appear 

I in — this 



A sincere friend is always just what he appears to be. 

he appears to be < — what 

<_ 1 just 

friend is 



1 a j always 

sincere 



Each member of the camping party did whatever he knew how to 
do best. 

to do — > whatever 
I best 
he knew 



1 h<K 
member did — > 



| each 




of — 


oarty 




1 1 the 




camping 



The contest was open to whoever was willing to meet the require- 
ments announced by the committee. 

contest was < — open ^ 

I to — whoever was willing 

I to meet requirements 



I announced (participle) 
I by — committee 
I the 



140 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS 

i. Only what was amusing interested her. 

2. Your chum tries whatever promises amusement for the hour. 

3. The house seemed to have windows of gold. 

4. The old fellow was occupied with whatever work his hands found 

to do. 

5. His work was whatever came to his hand. 

6. That the statements of the witness were true was not questioned 

by the attorneys. 

7. They declared that all the statements of the witness should be 

accepted. 

8. The machine is run by whatever motive force is most convenient 

for use. 

9. It was not denied that the money had disappeared. 

10. The question was, had it been stolen, or simply lost. 

11. This was what puzzled the whole group. 

12. What confused the dogs was the trail crossing running water. 

13. They easily found where the trail came to the edge of the water. 

14. What one does of good or ill brings its own reward or pain. 

15. Whatever a man sows shall be his harvest. 



LESSON F 

ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 

To analyze a sentence some part of which is so well understood 
that it is not necessary to say it, supply in the simplest form the 
missing part, and then proceed in the usual way. 

Examples: 

At Christmas I no more desire a rose, 

Than wish a snow in May's newfangled mirth. 

I desire — > rose 



(I) 


wish 


nore 
| no 


at — Christmas 
— > snow 




1 in — mirth | a 








May's 
newfangled 



APPENDIX 141 

He in peace is wounded, not in war. 
he I is wounded (he | is wounded) 



I in peace 



I not 
in war 



SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS 

1. Worth makes the man, and want of it the fellow. 

2. Good words are better than bad strokes. 

3. Xo thing except a battle lost can be half as melancholy as a battle 

won. 

4. This book is not so new as that. 

5. It is not so easy to do this as you might think. 

6. She plays the piano well, but not accurately. 

7. He that is slow to anger is better than the might)', And he that 

ruleth his spirit than he that taketh a city. 

8. You can go to San Francisco more quickly than to Galveston. 

9. His new book was not so much read as the old. 
10. You look as if you were cold. 

n. If urged, you may stay till Monday. 

12. The merchant's profits were larger this year than last. 

13. Have you had as many lessons as your sister? 

14. Wilbur is not so tall as his brother. 

15. Harry is older than Wilbur. 



LESSON G 

SENTENCES ILLUSTRATING ALL THE USES OF THE 
INFINITIVE WITH TO 

The infinitive with to has five noun uses, three adjective uses, 
one adverbial, and one verb. 

Noun Uses: 

1. Subject. — To lie maliciously is infamous. 

2. Predicate noun. — Your first obligation was to speak the truth. 

3. Object. — They expect to take a long vacation. 

4. Object of a preposition. — They will do nothing except play. 

5. A p positive. — Their plan, to fish and climb mountains, seems a 
very interesting one. 



142 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

Adjective Uses: 

i. Predicate adjective. — Our plan seemed to work (workable) each 
day. 

2. Factitive predicate adjective. — The invaders made the natives 
work for them. 

3. Adjective modifier of a noun. — Houses to rent are scarce this year. 

Adverbial use: 

1. Folks would laugh to see (at seeing) a cinder-maid at a court ball. 

To see is an infinitive equivalent to the adverbial phrase at 
seeing. This last phrase is adverbial, and is made of a preposi- 
tion and a gerund. 

Infinitive as the verbal element in a subordinate clause con- 
densed to a phrase: 

1. Your country expects you to do your plain duty. 

Infinitive 
you to do — > duty 

country | expects — > 



your 



your 



plain 



This infinitive expanded into a full clause would be: 
that 





you ' should do — > duty 


country | 


expects — > 


1 your 




your 


plain 



SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS 

1. The robins learned to fly in one day. 

2. To show fear will excite the animals. 

3. To drive the car safely requires skill. 

4. Necessity makes even a lazy man work. 

5. She began to wind the big hall clock. 

6. The school expects the team to win to-morrow. 

7. The team expects to win the game to-morrow. 

8. There is no art to find the mind's construction in the face. 

9. I was sorry when I heard the news. 
10. I was sorry at hearing the news. 



APPENDIX 143 

11. I was sorry to hear the bad news. 

12. It is useless to try to convince them. 

13. The visitors came in for the purpose of hearing our little play. 

14. The visitors came in to hear our little play. 

15. I want you to work for success. 

16. I want you to work to succeed. 

17. Water to drink is supplied at sanitary fountains. 

18. Drinking-water is plentiful. 

19. The greatest of faults is to be conscious of none. 

20. The explorers dared not go farther north. 

21. That child is old enough to go to school. 

22. I want you to write a story for Thursday. 



LESSON H 

SENTENCES ILLUSTRATING ALL THE USES OF THE 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE IN -ING AND THE GERUND 

(THE INFINITIVE IN -ING) 

The participle ending in -ing is nearly always either a part of 
a verb phrase, or else an adjective modifier of a noun or pronoun. 
It should not be confused with the gerund. The gerund also 
ends in -ing, but it is used as a noun, and is very much like the 
infinitive. Some grammarians call it the infinitive in -ing. 

Uses of participles in ing : 

1. As a part of a verb phrase. 

The men were mowing the hay. 

2. As an adjective modifier. 

The running horses dashed through the gateway. 
The men, mowing the hay, stopped for their lunch. 

3. As a factitive predicate adjective. 

The officers kept the crowd waiting at the station. 

Sometimes a participial phrase, while acting like an adjective 
modifier, has some adverbial force and gives a reason for a certain 
action. 

Example: — Having received the appointment, he left for his new 
home. 



144 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

Uses of gerunds (five noun uses): 

i. As subject. — Constantly pulling the heavy sled tired the dogs. 

2. As predicate noun. — Her occupation is mending china. 

3. As object. — She learned mending china at a famous pottery. 

4. As object of a preposition. — We could go no farther without 
roughly mending the roads. 

5. As ap positive. — Her work, successfully mending broken china, 
was all done at home. 

All the gerunds shown above are made from transitive verbs. 
They act like nouns in the sentences, but take their objects 
directly like verbs, and they take adverbs as modifiers. If the 
gerund is made from an intransitive verb, it may be followed 
by an adjective complement or a noun or pronoun complement, 
just like any intransitive verb. 

Example : — The secret of being lovely is being unselfish. 

The pure verbal noun in -ing is always preceded by the definite 
article the, and modified by an adjective, instead of an adverb. 
It takes an object only after a preposition. 

Example: — The constant pulling of the heavy sled tired the dogs. 

The gerund is modified by nouns or pronouns in the posses- 
sive case — not the objective. We say: The teacher inquired 
about his being late. We do not say: The teacher inquired about 
him being late. 



DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING THE USE OF PARTICIPLES 
AND GERUNDS 

Factitive Predicate 
officers I kept (waiting) — > crowd 



| the 


| at — station 


| the 




he 


| the 
| left 




| having received 


— ► appointment 


| for - 


- home 




| his 






L 

ne 



I his 



W( 


> 1 < 


:ould go 


APPENDIX 


145 




| furth 

L 

without 


er 
no 

Obj. of Prep. 
mending 


Obj. of Ger. 
-> roads 




| carefully 




pulling — > 


sled 




j constantl} 


T 


U 

heavy 


be 

tired — > 










dogs 


pulling 


| tired — > dogs 


! the 




| the 
constant 




[ the 
of — sled 












| the 
heavy 





SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS 

Come in without making a noise. 

Passing the big boulder, we were able to see the cottage there among 

the aspens. 
Passing the bill was the business of the legislature for the day. 
The teacher charged Fred with being the culprit. 
Fred was charged with being guilty. 
This work, caring for orphan children, has developed since the war 

began. 
This man, having tried several trades, finally became a successful 

plumber. 
Modeling small figures in clay is Flora's recreation. 
Ultra-violet rays pass through the ether without really making a 

light. 
Martha's greatest attraction was being constantly good-natured. 
Martha's greatest attraction, being constantly jolly, made her 

many friends. 
Her friends declared that Martha's greatest attraction was that of 

being constantly good-humored. 



146 THE LITTLE GRAMMAR 

13. Have you ever tried keeping constantly in a good humor? 

14. Seeking always to do his best, he soon became known as a careful 

workman. 

15. Have you ever tried believing in your friend's honesty? 

16. Indulging a vain hope of succeeding, we went on with the work. 

17. They did not cease indulging a hope of success. 

18. I remember reading that novel. 

19. Carl's regular work is caring for his flock of chickens. 

20. Neal began mounting his moths yesterday. 

2i. Finding that the wish constantly grew upon him, he began making 

preparations for the visit to his old home. 
22. The book kept me reading all day. 



INDEX 



Absolute constructions, 15, 87. 

Adjectives, 39, 68. 

Adjectives, demonstrative, 66; in- 
terrogative, 60; comparison of, 
70; inflection of, 70. 

Adverbs, 40, 72 

comparison of, 73, functions of, 
72. 

Adverbial predicate, 132. 

Analysis of sentences, 105. 

Appositives, 14. 

Authority and usage, 3. 



Case of nouns, 46. 
Case of personal pronouns, 53. 
Clause modifiers, 23, no. 
Clauses, in apposition, 28. 
Clauses, nonrestrictive, 64. 
Clauses, restrictive, 64. 
Clauses used as nouns, 28, 139. 
Cognate object, 132. 
Colloquial English, 5. 
Commands, 10. 
Commas, 121. 
Common errors, 124. 
Comparison of adjectives, 72. 
Comparison of adverbs, 73. 
Compound relative pronouns, 63. 
Complex sentences, no. 
Compound sentences, 31, 114. 
Compound subjects, etc., 114. 
Conjugation of verbs, 77. 
Conjunctions, 40. 
Conjunctions, coordinate, 98. 
Conjunctions, subordinate, 100. 
Conjunctive pronouns, 62. 



Dangling participles, 15, 86. 
Demonstrative adjectives, 66. 
Demonstrative pronouns, 66. 



Elements of a sentence, 3. 
Elliptical sentences, 30, 140. 
English, common errors in, 124. 
Exclamatory nominatives, 14. 
Expletives it and there, 14, 137. 



Factitive predicate adjective, 133, 

134- 
Factitive predicate noun, 134. 



Gender of nouns, 48, 52. 
Gender of pronouns, 52. 
Gerund, 91, 143. 

I 

Indefinite pronouns, 67. 
Indefinite object, 132. 
Independent elements, 14, 34. 
Infinitives with to, 89, 141. 
Intensive use of pronouns, 54. 
Interjections, 40, 103. 
Interrogative adjectives, 60. 
Interrogative pronouns, 59; use 

of, 59- 
Intransitive verbs, 76. 



Levels of language, 4. 
Literary English, 5. 

M 

Materials for reference, 121. 
Modifiers, clause, 23; phrase, 22; 
word, 21. 

N 
No, 14. 

Nominative of address, 14. 
Nonrestrictive clauses, 63. 



147 



148 



INDEX 



Noun uses of clauses, 28, 136. 

Noun uses of phrases, 27. 

Nouns, 39; nouns beginning with 
capital letters, 43; gender forms 
of, 48; plural forms of, 43; pos- 
sessive forms of, 46. 

O 

Object, cognate, 132; indefinite, 
132; indirect, 134; reflexive, 
133; retained, 135. 

Objective complement, 133. 



Parenthetical expressions, 14. 

Participles, 75, 112, 143. 

Parts of speech, 39, 41. 

Periods, 121. 

Personal pronouns, 50; case of, 53; 

practice in the use of, 57. 
Phrase modifiers, 22, 108, 112. 
Phrases, in apposition, 22; used 

as nouns, 27, 138. 
Pleonasm, 15, 16. 
Plural forms of nouns, 43. 
Possessive forms of nouns, 46. 
Predicate, 9, 18, 34. 
Predicate complements, 18, 131, 

134. 

Preparatory words, 15. 

Prepositions, 40, 98. 

Principal parts of verbs, 78. 

Pronouns, 39, 50; conjunctive, 66; 
demonstrative, 66; indefinite, 
67; intensive, 54; interrogative, 
59; reflexive, 54; relative, 61. 

Provincial English, 5. 



Question marks, 121. 
Quotation marks, 123. 



Reflexive pronoun, 54; uses of, 62. 
Relative clauses, position of, 66. 
Responsives yes and no, 14. 
Restrictive clauses, 64. 
Retained object, 135. 



Science of the sentence, 3. 

Semicolons, 123. 

Sentence, 8; sentence analysis, 105; 
the simple, 105; the complex, 
no; the compound, 31, 114; 
sentence order, 9. 

Shall and will, 93. 

Should and would, 93. 

Slang, 5. 

Speech, the parts of, 29. 

Subject of sentence, 9, 34. 

Subordinate conjunctions, 100. 



Tense of verbs, 82. 
Transitive verbs, 76. 
Troublesome verbs, 79. 

U 

Usage and authority, 3. 

V 

Verbals, 85. 

Verbs, 40; conjugation of, 77; in- 
transitive, 76; principal parts 
of, 78; tense of, 82; transitive, 
76. 

Vocatives, 14. 

Vulgar English, 6. 

w 

Who and whom, 59, 65. 
Word modifiers, 20, 105. 



Recognizing the parts of speech, 41 . 
Reflexive object, 133. Yes, 14. 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: Oct. 2006 

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